Optimum Welding Parameters Research Articles

A Study of the Performance of Dissimilar Pulsed-Laser-Welded JSC590R/JAC980YL Steel Joints of Differential Thickness

To reveal the correlation between the mechanical properties of JSC590R/JSC980YL steel pulse-laser-welded joints and welding parameters, this study adopts the response surface analysis test method to determine the welding parameters, and examined the macroscopic morphology, microstructure, microhardness, and tensile properties of the cross-section of the welded joints. The results revealed that the key factors influencing welded joints quality, in descending order of importance, are distance to focus, welding speed, and single-pass heat input. The interaction between these factors is extremely significant. The weld zone of the joints is primarily composed of lath martensite, while the heat-affected zone is composed of ferrite, martensite, carburite, tempered martensite, and residual austenite. The optimized welding parameters align with actual expectations, yielding an average engineering stress of 616.9 MPa for the joint. Notably, the fracture area shifts from the heat-affected zone of JSC590R to the base material.

Hybrid Entropy–Principal Component Analysis–Combined Compromise Solution Techniques for Optimizing Welding Parameters of Monel 400 and Validation via Machine Learning

Hybrid Entropy–Principal Component Analysis–Combined Compromise Solution Techniques for Optimizing Welding Parameters of Monel 400 and Validation via Machine Learning

Optimizing 3D Laser Foil Printing Parameters for AA 6061: Numerical and Experimental Analysis

Abstract This study utilizes a technology known as 3D laser foil printing (LFP) to create precise structures by layering metal foils using laser welding. Metal foils have the advantages of rapid cooling and efficient heat conduction, allowing for the formation of fine-grained structures. However, when dealing with materials like aluminum alloys in laser processes, defects can arise as a result of their high reflectivity. To address this challenge, laser circular oscillation welding (LCOW) is applied to the LFP process. LCOW's circular motions with higher scanning frequencies widen the keyholes and reduce some defects such as spattering, bubble formation, and microcracks. Simulation predictions with an error margin of approximately 10% in comparison to experimental results demonstrate the reliability of the model. Furthermore, the study integrates circular packing design with artificial neural networks to create comprehensive processing maps tailored to different criteria for extracting optimal welding parameters. As a result, for the optimized processing parameters screened using the above systematic process, no cracks were observed on the upper surface of the 3D LFP parts produced with a laser power of 800 W and a scanning speed of 550 mm/s, and only 0.12% porosity was observed from the cross section of the sample. Future research will focus on incorporating simulation results to model microstructures more precisely and continually refining LCOW parameters as new materials and technologies emerge, ensuring the ongoing enhancement of weld quality in the 3D LFP process.

Application of gray relational analysis for optimizing stud welding parameters of IF 7114 steel for the automotive industry

In this study, the application of stud welding to IF 7114 steel sheets in the automotive industry using stainless steel and copper-plated steel studs with different diameters and welding voltages was investigated. The aim is to optimize welding parameters and investigate their effects on the mechanical properties of the weld zone. Taguchi optimization and gray relational analysis were used to identify the best welding parameters for tensile strength and torque resistance. Results showed that the highest tensile strength and torque resistance were achieved with a stainless steel M8 stud diameter and 150 V welding voltage, while the lowest values were observed with copper-plated steel M5 studs and 180 V voltage. Additionally, stainless steel studs consistently outperformed copper-plated steel in both tensile strength and torque resistance. The study concludes that stainless steel studs, particularly with an M8 diameter at 180 V, offer the most favorable welding performance.

Optimization of bobbin tool friction stir welding parameters of AZ31 magnesium alloy based on FEM and its influence mechanism on mechanical properties

Based on the 3D transient heat transfer theory, the finite element model of bobbin tool friction stir welding (BT-FSW) of AZ31 magnesium alloy sheet is established. The effects of different process parameters on the quality of BT-FSW joint of magnesium alloy were discussed using temperature distribution, mechanical properties, fracture morphology analysis, and EDS element distribution analysis. The results show that in the process of BT-FSW, the cross-section temperature of the plate is symmetrically distributed in an hourglass shape, the AS is slightly lower than that of RS, and the transverse temperature is distributed in an ‘M’ shape. When the rotating speed is 700 rpm and the welding speed is 180 mm/min, the weld surface is smooth, and its ultimate tensile strength can reach 81.82% of the base metal strength. The tensile specimen is quasi-cleavage fracture. When the heat input is insufficient, there are a lot of Al8Mn5 Precipitated phases in the TMAZ fracture zone, which increases the fracture brittleness of the joint. When the heat input is enough, the precipitated phase dissolves evenly, the river-like fracture surface of the joint retains the dimple characteristics, and the mechanical properties are improved.

A multi-scale modeling framework for solidification cracking during welding

A multi-scale multi-physics modeling framework has been developed to predict solidification cracking susceptibility (SCS) during welding. The framework integrates a thermo-mechanical finite element model to simulate temperature and strain rate profiles during welding, a cellular automata model to simulate the solidified microstructure in the weld pool, and a granular model to calculate the pressure drop in the mushy zone. Verification was achieved by comparing the model’s predictions with welding experiments on two steels, demonstrating its capability to accurately capture the effects of process parameters, grain refinement, and alloy composition on SCS. Results indicate that increasing welding velocity, while maintaining a constant power-to-velocity ratio, extends the size of the mushy zone and increases the maximum pressure drop in the mushy zone, leading to higher SCS. Grain refinement decreases separation velocities and the permeability of liquid channels, which increases SCS, but it also raises the coalescence temperature, resulting in an overall reduction in SCS. Alloy composition impacts SCS through thermal diffusivity and segregation. Lower thermal diffusivity or stronger segregation tends to elongate the mushy zone, resulting in an increase in SCS. This framework provides a robust tool for understanding the mechanisms of solidification cracking, optimizing welding parameters to prevent its occurrence, and comparing SCS of different compositions during alloy design.

Taguchi, Grey Relational Analysis, and ANOVA Optimization of TIG Welding Parameters to Maximize Mechanical Performance of Al-6061 T6 Alloy

This study presents a comprehensive investigation into optimizing Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding parameters to enhance the mechanical performance of the widely used Al-6061 T6 alloy, specifically in a double V joint configuration with a plate thickness of 6 mm, for aerospace applications. The Taguchi method was employed to design the experiments, providing a robust framework for analyzing the influence of the electrical current, voltage, and gas flow rate on weld quality. Additionally, a Grey Relational Analysis (GRA) and an Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) were used to validate the optimal welding parameters and quantify the significance of each factor. The optimized parameters were determined to be an amperage of 180 A, a voltage of 18 V, and a gas flow rate of 10 L/min, resulting in significant improvements of up to 40% in tensile strength and 23% in hardness, demonstrating the effectiveness of the optimized conditions. The findings provide valuable insights into welding metallurgy, offering practical guidelines for enhancing high-performance welded joints in critical industrial applications. This study underscores the potential of combining Taguchi, GRA, and ANOVA methodologies to achieve superior mechanical properties and reliability in welded structures.

Analysis and Optimization of Laser Beam Welding Parameters for Aluminium Composite (Al-Zn-Cu Alloy) by Grey Relational Optimization

Aluminium and its composites are widely used in production to enhance the strength of lightweight objects. In this study, an AA7075/SiC composite was fabricated using a stir casting route. Multi-objective optimization and finite element analysis were performed with various process parameters on a manufactured aluminium composite (AA7075 + SiC) undergoing a laser beam welding process. Four welding parameters, i.e., pulse frequency, power, welding speed (transverse), and wire size were taken for laser welding as per the L-9 orthogonal array for experimental study. Tensile strength, deflection, temperature distribution, Rockwell hardness (fusion zone), and Rockwell hardness (heat affected zone) were taken as output parameters after welding. The standard deviation objective weighting–grey relational optimization method optimized the process parameter. ANSYS APDL 23 software was utilized to simulate the entire laser welding method with a cylindrical heat source to predict the temperature distribution in the butt-welded plates. This software uses finite element analysis and gives a deviation of only 5.85% for temperature distribution with experimental results. This study helps to understand the effect of various parameters on the welding strength of the aluminium composite.

Research on the Cavitation Resistance Testing of Friction Stir Welded Joint of En Aw 1200 Aluminium Alloy

Aluminium alloys are being used more often as a result of industry demands for strong, lightweight materials. Because of its advantages over conventional fusion welding techniques, friction stir welding, or FSW, has become a promising technique for joining aluminium alloys. Nonetheless, there is still cause for concern regarding FSW joints' vulnerability to cavitation erosion, which is a major issue in applications exposed to harsh environments. The cavitation resistance of EN AW 1200 aluminium alloy joints made by the FSW process is the main objective of this study. By utilizing specialized equipment to conduct cavitation tests, the study uses a comprehensive methodology to assess the cavitation erosion behaviour of these joints. A number of variables are investigated in order to determine how they affect the cavitation resistance of the welded joints, including mechanical attributes, welding parameters, and microstructural features. The goal of the study is to shed light on how well FSW joints function and hold up in cavitation scenarios. This information will be useful in improving the dependability and suitability of EN AW 1200 aluminium alloy in sectors where the ability to withstand cavitation erosion is critical. The findings from this study are expected to contribute to the optimization of welding parameters and material selection, ultimately advancing the use of aluminium alloys in critical applications requiring resistance to cavitation-induced damage.

Ultrasonic Welding Parameter Optimization for Electric Component Welding

Industrial requirements to establish metallic joints between dissimilar metals in the electric area. The ultrasonic welding process is an optimal process to joint thin sheets or foils. The goal of the research was to optimize the ultrasonic welding parameters to join thin nickel-coated copper sheets and aluminium sheets. It used a 0.5 mm thick high-purity copper (Cu-OF-R200) sheet coated with a 10 μm pure nickel layer and a 0.5 mm thick aluminium (1050A H24) sheet. The ultrasonic welding is made by a Branson Ultraweld L20 ultrasonic welder equipment. The mechanical properties and exacting geometrical tolerance of the joint were required. The welding parameter optimization is made empirically, with several welding tests. The optimal welding parameters were confirmed by non-destructive and destructive tests of the joints. The non-destructive tests were the visual inspection and geometrical measurements of the joint sizes. The destructive tests were tensile tests and macroscopic and microscopic tests. The completed test results confirmed the process applicability and the quality of the joint.

Physical Heat Cycle Measurement of Resistance Spot Welding

Resistance spot welding (RSW) is still the ideal joining method in the automotive industry. Mostly steel sheets are used in the car body, so overlap and layering are required for welding or riveting, as spot welding provides simultaneous clamping force with interfacial welding to ensure the required strength and quality. A fundamental understanding of heating and cooling rates in thermal distributions is essential for predicting microstructure formation in the weld and the heat-affected zones (HAZ) of RSW joints. The ability to measure the heat cycle in the RSW process can be valuable in weld control and welding parameter optimization. RSW parameters can be optimized through tensile shear tests and microscopic investigations. Heat cycle measurement (HCM) demonstrates the welding consequences in terms of the change in mechanical properties and microstructural formations. The accuracy of cooling rate measurements including t8/5 cooling time is very important to predict the microstructural evolution in the HAZ, however, the thermocouple measurement raises numerous challenges due to the high temperature gradient and small weld and HAZ size. During our investigations heat cycle measurement has been conducted experimentally by a K-type thermocouple. The data logger is connected to the output of the thermocouple for recording the voltage to measure the temperature distributions as a function of both time and position during the welding process. Measurement results of 1 mm thick martensitic MS1400 steel overlapped RSW joints are discussed, and the HCM curve of heating and cooling rates of the spot-welding process is presented. The heat cycle during RSW was measured with two different welding parameter combinations. In addition to welding current, welding time, and electrode force, pulsation has shown disparate curves. Numerous experiments have been attempted to measure the heat cycle in HAZ sub-zones due to the difficulty of positioning the thermocouple accurately, uppercritical HAZ, intercritical HAZ, and subcritical HAZ were investigated and measured in both welding parameter combinations. Difficulties were encountered in the experimental work as a result of the instantaneous welding time and the vibration resulting from the passage of alternating electrical current between the two electrodes. A magnetic field is generated that affects the thermocouple measurement and appears as a noisy curve that is filtered out and smoothed. Joule heat, interfacial heat generation, and cooling effects of electrodes are also considered in the experiment.

Study of the effect of SMAW welding speed on the microstructure and crystal stability of X70 steel using X-ray diffraction

This study investigates the impact of manual electric arc welding (SMAW) speed on the microstructure of X70 steel. Welding was performed at two distinct speeds: S1 = 20 mm/min and S2 = 35 mm/min, at the COSIDER BISKRA workshop in Algeria. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was conducted on the welded zones to examine crystal orientation, size, dislocation density, and structural stability across different welding areas, including the base metal (MB), heat-affected zones (HAZ1 and HAZ2), and weld zones (WZ1 and WZ2). The XRD results revealed that key crystal peaks, such as {110} and {200}, retained their positions at both welding speeds, though variations in {110} peak intensity were noted. The lower welding speed (S1) resulted in a higher heat input, which enhanced crystal stability, increased crystal size, and reduced dislocation density. On the other hand, the higher speed (S2) produced lower heat input, leading to smaller crystal sizes, increased residual stresses, and a greater number of defects due to rapid cooling. These findings underscore the critical influence of welding speed on heat input, cooling rates, and their consequent effects on microstructure. The study highlights the importance of optimizing welding parameters to balance microstructural integrity, mechanical performance, and production efficiency.

Innovative D-process MIG welding for enhanced performance of thick sections of MDN 250 in aerospace applications

Maraging steel, known for its exceptional strength, toughness and ductility, is widely used in aerospace and hypersonic missile manufacturing. The present study investigates the feasibility of joining 12 mm thick sections of maraging steel using advanced D-Process MIG welding technology. The D-Process integrates different welding modes such as MIG, Single Pulse-MIG and Double Pulse-MIG to optimize welding parameters, minimizing heat input. Additionally, the research investigates the influence of various post-weld heat treatments (PWHTs) on the performance of welded joints. The PWHTs included in the study are Ageing Treatment (AT), Solution Treatment + Ageing Treatment (SAT) and Homogenizing Treatment + Solution Treatment + Ageing Treatment (HSAT). Metallographic and mechanical tests were conducted on as-welded (AW) and PWHT conditions. Results showed the HSAT condition yielded superior properties with an average UTS of 1771 MPa, YS of 1734 MPa, and an average fracture toughness (FT) of 88 MPa√m. This underscores the efficacy of D-Process welding in meeting stringent requirements for maraging steel in aerospace and high-performance applications.

Efficient optimization of friction stir welding parameters for AA7075 and AA6082 alloys: A Hungarian method approach

Friction stir welding (FSW) is a key technique for welding high-strength aluminium alloys without melting, making it indispensable in industries where maintaining material integrity is of utmost importance. The current study presents a novel application of the Hungarian method, a combinatorial optimization technique, to determine the optimal FSW parameters for AA7075 and AA6082 alloys. The weldments were produced by applying different feed rates (40, 50 and 60 mm/min) and rotational speeds (1000, 1100 and 1200 rpm) in accordance with a L9 orthogonal array. The optimal combination was, a feed rate of 40 mm/min and a rotational speed of 1200 rpm, yielding an ultimate tensile strength of 162.26 MPa, a percentage elongation of 2.56 and an impact energy of 2.5 J/mm². The microstructural investigation showed substantial improvement in the grain refinement of the weld nugget, which significantly contributed to improved mechanical properties. However, under optimal welding conditions, the weld nugget exhibited a significant negative corrosion potential compared to the base metals, indicating a higher susceptibility to corrosion. These results show that the Hungarian method provides a systematic approach to optimizing FSW parameters, but it might be necessary to adapt post-weld treatment to lower propensity to corrode. This study illustrates not only the application of the Hungarian method in the optimization of operating parameters of FSW but also establishes a base for further studies dealing with combinatorial optimization problems in welding and other manufacturing processes.

A study of the effects of welding parameters on macrostructure properties and heat distribution in FSW of aluminium metal matrix composite

Abstract The objective of this study is to present the effects of welding variables, specifically traverse speed and rotational speed, on the macrostructure of an aluminium metal matrix composite. This investigation includes comprehensive thermal monitoring and measurements within the weld joint area, utilizing infrared thermography to track the primary stages of friction stir welding (FSW). By examining different areas of the weld, to study aims to elucidate how temperature is distributed across the aluminium metal matrix composite in relation to the specific parameters of the FSW process, and to determine the subsequent impact on weld quality. Using infrared thermography, the researcher not only maps the thermal profile during welding, but also correlates these thermal variations with macrostructural changes in the aluminium metal matrix composite. This method allows for precise detection of temperature fluctuations and provides a detailed understanding of how traverse speed and rotational speed influence thermal distribution. Moreover, the study demonstrates the efficacy of thermography as a valuable tool for assessing weld quality. By capturing real-time thermal images, this technique enables the identification of potential defects and inconsistencies within the weld zone, facilitating a more thorough investigation into the integrity and performance of the welded joints. Ultimately, the findings aim to contribute to optimizing welding parameters on enhance the structural integrity and reliability of aluminium metal matrix composites in various applications.

Corrosion Rate Optimization and Prediction for Enhanced Strength and Structural Integrity of Pipeline Weldments Using RSM and ANN

This study investigates the optimization and prediction of non-elastic performance factors required to augment the pipeline weldments' structural integrity and strength. The study's main focus is on the components of the operation, like the welding current, voltage, and gas flow rate to optimize and predict the corrosion rate of the pipeline weldment. Utilizing Design Expert software for experimental design and data analysis, the study employs the Central Composite Design (CCD) methodology to generate a quadratic model that predicts the responses effectively. The research also integrates Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) to further enhance the prediction accuracy. Experimental results indicate that the optimal welding parameters 160 amps current, 21.28 volts voltage, and 14.67 liters/min gas flow rate—yield a corrosion rate of 0.018 mm/yr. The study concludes that both RSM and ANN can be effectively used for optimization and prediction in welding processes, with RSM showing slightly better predictive capabilities.

Resistance Welding of Thermoplastic Composites, Including Welding to Thermosets and Metals: A Review.

This review paper presents the current progress in the development of resistance welding techniques for thermoplastic composites, with a particular emphasis on their application in hybrid joints, such as those involving thermosetting composites and metals. Resistance welding, a fusion bonding method, offers significant advantages over adhesive bonding and mechanical joining by eliminating the need for additional adhesive materials and enabling integration into automated manufacturing processes. The study highlights the unique benefits of resistance welding, including lower energy consumption compared to other methods and its compatibility with automated manufacturing, which can reduce production costs by up to 40%. Key findings from the literature indicate that resistance welding is particularly effective in achieving strong, durable joints for complex and large structures, such as those used in the aerospace industry. The review also identifies the main challenges associated with resistance welding, including temperature control, current leakage in carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers, and potential corrosion when using metal meshes. To address these challenges, various strategies are discussed, including surface treatments, the use of nanocomposites, and the integration of carbon nanotubes. The review concludes by emphasizing the need for further research to optimize welding parameters and to develop non-destructive testing methods for industrial applications, ensuring the reliability and long-term performance of welded joints.

An experimentally validated thermomechanical model for a parametric study on reducing residual stress in cast iron repair welding

Remarkable casting properties and superior mechanical characteristics of cast iron make it an ideal material for a wide range of industrial applications. However, the production of cast iron components may result in the formation of cracks and defects, posing a significant threat to their structural integrity. Repair welding is a promising solution to resolve cast iron production defects. However, repair welding cast iron components poses unique challenges that stem from residual stress (RS) formation and the possibility of cracking during the repair process. Moreover, research on cast iron repair is scarce. To overcome these challenges, this paper presents a thermo-mechanical model validated by experiments to reduce RS in cast iron repair welding through the optimization of welding parameters and weld sequences as well as the geometry of the repair area. An experimental bead-on-plate weld is set up in order to validate the developed thermo-mechanical model. The temperature distribution in the weld is measured using thermocouples placed around the weld line. An X-ray diffraction technique is used to measure the axial and transverse RS at different points around the weld line. The developed finite element model is employed to simulate the repair welding process and analyze the effect of inter-pass temperature, the number of welding passes, welding sequences, and groove geometry on the RS. The numerical approach applied in this study provides a framework for repair welding optimization of cast iron and other materials, fostering the development of more efficient and reliable repair methods for industrial applications.

Dissimilar joining of aluminum alloy and low-alloy carbon steel by resistance spot welding

In this work, the resistance spot welding (RSW) process was performed to join aluminum alloy and low-alloy carbon steel plates. The macro characteristics including nugget diameters and indentation rates, microstructure and tensile-shear strength of RSW joints were investigated. The results showed that the nugget of the RSW joints comprises a ‘bowl’ shape nugget on the aluminum side and an elliptical shape nugget on the steel side. Also, the intermetallic compound (IMC) layers containing Fe4Al13 and Fe2Al5 were formed around the aluminum/steel interface with the steel side having a tongue-shape and the aluminum side having a needle-shape. According to metallurgical evaluation and temperature distribution of RSW joints analyzed by the finite element method, the nugget on the aluminum side contained the dendritic grains and equiaxed dendritic grains. The nugget on the steel side consisted of a large amount of bainite and a small amount of coarse lath martensite. The nugget diameters and the indentations rates of RSW joints increased when increasing either welding current or welding time, and decreased when increasing the electrode pressure. The maximum values of nugget diameter and indentation rate of RSW joints were 9.076 mm and 4.144% when using the welding current of 16 kA, welding time of 450 ms and electrode force of 3 kN. In tensile-shear tests, the RSW joints showed a shear-off fracture mode. When increasing the welding current, welding time or electrode force, the tensile-shear strength of RSW joints increased first, and then reached a maximum, and finally decreased. The welding current of 16 kA, the welding time of 300 ms, and the electrode pressure of 3 kN were considered as the optimal welding parameters in the present study which resulted in the maximum tensile-shear strength of 2.24 kN. In addition, the IMC layers of the RSW joints exhibited a uniform and continuous appearance with a thickness of approximately 1.9 μm, and the IMC layer in the central area was thicker than that in the edge area.

Characterization and optimization of TIG welding parameters for AISI 304 and AISI 316 stainless steel dissimilar joints

This study explores the impact of tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding parameters on the mechanical properties and microstructure of dissimilar welds between AISI 304 and AISI 316 austenitic stainless steels. Given the growing industrial demand for these materials, the research focuses on optimizing welding current, shielding gas flow rate, and voltage to enhance tensile strength, hardness, and impact toughness. Using the L9 orthogonal array based on Taguchi’s methodology, the experiments revealed that Relatively highs currents and voltages significantly improved the ultimate tensile strength (up to 673.67 MPa) and impact energy absorption (up to 36.5 J). Microstructural analysis indicated refined grain structures in the heat-affected zones, with pronounced grain growth in AISI 316 due to its thermal sensitivity. The micro-hardness analysis revealed that the highest hardness occurred in the HAZ of AISI 304, with samples 5 and 6 exhibiting the optimal hardness profile, reflecting the most favorable welding parameters. The study concludes that a current range of 80-90 A and a voltage range of 10-11 V and a shielding gas flow rate of 12-16 L/min provide optimal welding conditions, offering robust guidelines for industrial applications requiring high-performance dissimilar welds.