Low Alloy Steel Weld Research Articles

Influence of arc energy on the microstructure and corrosion behavior of ER2209 duplex stainless steel deposited on Q345B low-alloy steel by GMAW

In order to eliminate the complex effects of thermal cycling and the thermal effects of the next pass on multi-layer multi-pass welding of low-alloy steel and duplex stainless steel, ER2209 welding wire was single-layer single-pass deposited on the surface of Q345B hot-rolled plate by gas metal arc welding (GMAW). The microstructure and corrosion resistance of welded joints were studied by different arc energies. The results showed that the arc energy had a significant impact on the “tongue-shaped” morphology and the width of heat affect zone in the welded joint, which in turn affected the corrosion performance of the welded joints. Due to the least distribution of “tongue-shaped” morphology and minimum width of heat affected zone in the welded joint with arc energy of 0.645kJ/mm, it owned the best corrosion resistance. The weld metals of the welded joints were composed of ferrite and austenite phases. The ferrite phases were distributed along grain boundaries and intergranular. As the heat input increases, the distribution of ferrite phase along grain boundaries gradually decreased. The corrosion products and corrosion morphology of the welded joint were also investigated and the corrosion mechanism was discussed in detail. The research results of this article provide a theoretical basis for improving the corrosion performance of multi-layer multi-pass welded joints of low-alloy and duplex stainless dissimilar steels.

Microscopic characterisation of brittle fracture initiation in irradiated and thermally aged low-alloy steel welds of a decommissioned reactor pressure vessel

Microstructure has a significant effect on material's integrity and in a heterogeneous weld microstructure the discontinuities affect the brittle fracture initiation and propagation and determine the fracture toughness. The knowledge of brittle fracture initiation mechanisms in high-Mn/high-Ni welds is limited. The brittle fracture initiation behaviour of the decommissioned Barsebäck Unit 2 reactor pressure vessel (RPV) welds of high-Mn/high-Ni weld metal from three different locations, the RPV head and the beltline regions, were investigated and compared with specimens from the surveillance program with high fluence. Systematic fractography has been performed on impact and fracture toughness specimens and the main features of the brittle fracture initiation in the component weld are presented and discussed. Two main types of initiators are identified as the weakest links to initiate the cleavage fracture and the initiation mechanism is found independent from the operation condition. The high-fluence surveillance specimens have a larger amount of intergranular cracking. The cleavage fracture initiation appears to be independent of the operation conditions but dependent on the welding process and metallurgical features. The findings aid in the development of improved material-property correlations which will result in better computational tools for predicting aging of welds based on microstructure.

High strength low alloy steel joint fabricated by laser welding with real-time high-frequency resistance heating

The balance between softening and hardening is still a great challenge for the laser welding of the high strength low alloy steel. For example, welding with low heat input was commonly used to avoid softening, but it would inversely harden the joint and introduce the undesired welding defects such as hydrogen-induced cracks. This work proposed a simple and robust processing technique, denominated High Frequency electric cooperated Laser Welding. Laser heat source was combined with high-frequency electric heat source to balance heat input distribution and reconcile the contradiction between softening and hardening in the welding of high strength low alloy steel. As a structural material sensitive to welding softening and hardening, S690QL steel was adopted to show the fundamental advancement of the new process. Benefitted from the skin effect and proximity effect of high-frequency current that improve the heat input distribution and the regulation of the high-frequency heat input proportion, the martensite content in the heat affected zone was greatly reduced, whilst the grain size was limited to a low value. Under the high-frequency heat input proportion of 47.1 %, lower bainite distributed throughout the heat affected zone. The softening and hardening issues of the joint therefore have been improved simultaneously: the tensile strength of the joint was almost equal to that of the base material, the impact energy of weld seam and the heat affected zone reached 77.6 J and 66.2 J respectively.

Melting Behavior of a CaO–SiO2–Al2O3 Flux with Varying MnO Concentration for Use in Fusion Welding of Low‐Carbon Steel

CaF2 has been a very common constituent in the fluxes used for welding of low‐carbon steel plates, owing to its strong ability to lower the liquidus temperature as well as viscosity of the molten flux. But the adverse impact of fluoride evaporation from molten slag on the health of operating personnel and the environment has prompted a worldwide effort to replace CaF2 with more benign constituents. Three compositions with varying MnO concentration in the CaO–MnO–SiO2–Al2O3 system, identified in the current work, have shown promise in terms of ability to control oxygen transfer and modify inclusion generation in the molten metal during the welding of low carbon low alloy steels. However, the melting behavior of a flux needs to be established before recommending its use for welding. Three compositions, with varying MnO concentration, are chosen in the current work. Aided by experimental measurements using high‐temperature microscopy, DTA and simulations using the commercially available thermodynamic package FactSage (version 8.3), this work aims to understand the melting characteristics of the developed fluxes. These characteristics seem to be comparable with a commercial CaF2‐containing welding flux, used as a reference for comparison. In addition, simulations using FactSage suggest that transfer of dissolved O, Si and Mn to the weld metal, while using these fluxes, would be benefitial to performance of the welded joint.

Comparative Analysis of Electrode Type on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties in AISI 5155 Low Alloy Steel Welds

Comparative Analysis of Electrode Type on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties in AISI 5155 Low Alloy Steel Welds

Underwater wet welding of high-strength low-alloy steel using self-shielded flux-cored wire with highly exothermic Al/CuO mixture

Underwater wet welding processes with minimal energy consumption and high efficiency is the future goal for researchers in the field. Al/CuO exothermic mixtures in consumables for land welding process can improve welding process stability and decrease the electrical dependence of the welding process. To confirm the beneficial effects of Al/CuO thermite and gain a better understanding of metallurgical properties of the thermite welds in underwater environment, this study investigated underwater wet self-shielded flux-cored arc welding (FCAW-S) of high-strength low-alloy steel with highly exothermic Al/CuO mixture. The effects of Al/CuO thermite on arc stability, weld metallurgical behavior and melting characteristics of flux-cored wire were clarified. The ratio of chemical heat in the flux to the heat required to melt welding wire increased from 4.7% to 38.4% with the addition of Al/CuO, potentially accelerating the melting of flux-cored wires. The arc stability with thermite addition was superior to that without the addition of thermite. The presence of copper as a result of metallurgical reactions had a substantial impact on metallurgical behavior of underwater wet welds. The ferrite weld was a non-equilibrium Cu supersaturated solid solution, which increased the microhardness and tensile strength of wet welds. The measured cooling time proved that the incorporation of Al/CuO had the capacity to reduce cooling rate. The incorporation of 50 wt% thermite yielded a 7.8% increase in welding process efficiency compared to the base formulation. Current work provided an important direction for the development of a chemically self-heating flux-cored wire.

Application of metal cored filler wire for environmental-friendly welding of low alloy steel: experimental investigation and parametric optimization

Motivated by the crescente demand for eco-friendly and worker-safe welding techniques, this study optimizes current (A), voltage (V), and gas flow rate (GFR) for regulated metal deposition (RMD) welding of ASME SA387 Gr.11 Cl.2 steel. Employing MEGAFIL 237 M metal cored filler wire and a Taguchi L9 orthogonal array, bead-on-plate trials were conducted to evaluate heat-affected zone (HAZ), depth of penetration (DOP), and bead width (BW). A unique dual-pronged optimization approach was implemented. The utility function method, combined with Taguchi’s signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio, maximized desirable and minimized undesirable responses. Additionally, TOPSIS with Taguchi S/N ratio identified the optimal process parameters. Both optimization strategies converged on identical. A = 135 A, V = 14 V, and GFR = 13 L/min. Notably, voltage emerged as the most influential factor in the mean S/N response table, highlighting its critical role in controlling weld quality. The proposed procedures offer a robust framework for determining optimal RMD welding conditions in pipeline applications. This not only enhances weld integrity and worker safety but also paves the way for sustainable manufacturing and continuous quality improvement in the field.

Influence of corrosion on ultra-low cycle fatigue performance of steel butt-welded joints with various welding methods

Preferential corrosion of welded joints in steel structures has been observed in a wide range of scenarios and should receive enough attention. The current work focuses on the corrosion and ultra-low cycle fatigue (ULCF) behavior of low-alloy steel weld joints. Firstly, 1600 h neutral salt spray (NSS) tests were conducted on welded joints made by different welding methods, and then topography scanning of corrosion pits was carried out. It was found that the welded region is more susceptible to corrosion. Dynamic polarization curves of the welded joints were measured, and the results show that the self-corrosion potential of the welded region is lower than that of the base metal (BM) region, while the corrosion current density is higher than that of the BM region. Subsequently, cyclic tests were carried out on the corroded weld joints. The results show that corrosion can cause a maximum reduction of 11.79% in yield load and 20.87% in ultimate load of the welded joints. Corrosion has slight influence on the energy dissipation capacity of welded joints, but the maximum reductions in ULCF life could reach 77.31% due to corrosion. Fractography analysis further shows that secondary cracks, map cracks, and intergranular brittle fracture, apart from more common fatigue fracture, ductile fracture, and quasi-cleavage fracture, appear on the fracture surfaces. Supplementary numerical simulation was conducted to enable a better understanding of the failure processes. In the simulation, a geometric modeling method using topography scanning data of corrosion surface was proposed. By using the proposed modeling approach, together with Chaboche cyclic plasticity constitutive model and cyclic void growth model (CVGM) for capturing fracture behavior, the predicted results show an acceptable agreement with the experimental ones.

Peculiarities Formation of Welded Joints under the External Electromagnetic Influence

Controlling the movement of liquid metal by selecting the parameters of an external electromagnetic effect makes it possible to change the conditions of dynamic equilibrium of the weld pool and, as a result, the formation of a weld. Magnetic process control has advantages over mechanical control methods, since it is carried out without contact with the welding zone. The study of processes leading to a decrease in the concentration of defects in metals, recombination of dislocations, polygonization, recrystallization, defect healing, etc., is an urgent task for technologists. The purpose of the work is to study the laws of formation of phase composition, microhardness, grain, lath, subgrain, dislocation structures of low-alloy steel welds in underwater welding and the relationship of structural parameters with the properties of strength and crack resistance of these joints. Microstructure studies were carried out by light, scanning, and transmission electron microscopy. Mathematical modelling was carried out to optimize the research efficiency. The developed computer application implements the idea of sequential calculation of quantities, where the value of the welding current and the current in the inductor is selected by the researcher. The influence of structural factors at the dislocation level on local internal stresses, which determine the deformation localization zones in the structures of the upper and lower bainites in the deposited metal, is analyzed. The conditions for obtaining high-quality welded joints in the welding of low-alloy steels, which ensure their strength and crack resistance, are established.

Consideration on the Applicability of Electron Beam Welding for the Manufacture of Small Modular Reactor

The overall technology required for the application of electron beam welding to ultra-thick plate pressure vessel in small modular reactors was considered. Electron beam welding has the advantage of reducing the manufacturing time compared with traditional arc welding, but it requires the construction of complex equipment and the establishment of related process technology. Based on the thickness of 150~250 mm, the electron beam welding equipment for application to SMR pressure vessel requires large-capacity equipment of 120~170 kV, 150 kW or more, which has never been commercially manufactured so far. A stable beam must be maintained for a constant time. Anti-arcing and seam tracking functions are also required. Electron beam welding of low-alloy steel has superior characteristics in terms of strength and toughness compared with arc welding. The welded area can be made into a base material by solution heat treatment. Cleaning and gap control are important for weld quality. Weld area should not be affected by magnetic fields. As circumferential welding overlaps in span at the welding start and end, it requires precise setting of welding parameters. For welding of large pressure vessel, customized cylindrical vacuum chamber or local vacuum chamber are suitable. It must be shielded from X-rays generated during welding.

Residual stress and microstructure control in welding of SA508 low alloy steel

Various types of solid-state phase transformation (SSPT) occur during the SA508 steel welding process, especially for multi-pass welding. The multiple thermal cycles lead to a more complex microstructure distribution and significantly influence the residual stress distribution. Therefore, to better control the microstructure and residual stress, it is necessary to optimize the process parameters which are closely related to the welding thermal cycles. This study established a thermo-mechanical-metallurgical multi-field coupling model and then validated it using X-ray and neutron diffraction residual stress measurement tests. Furthermore, the influence of welding heat input and preheating temperature on the formation of phase constituents and the ultimate residual stress field were analyzed in detail, concomitantly with a comprehensive discussion on their underlying mechanisms. The results showed that the increase of heat input expanded the domain occupied by the bainite phase, accompanied by the increase of compressive stress region. Moreover, the rise of preheating temperature promoted the bainite phase transformation, thus decreasing the longitudinal compressive stress and the stress gradient. The variation induced by welding parameters was closely related to the welding cooling rates. To obtain a full bainite and low residual stress condition of welded joint, it becomes imperative to exercise control over cooling rates, maintaining them at approximately 1.0 °C/s.

Understanding and Controlling the Weld Microstructure of Steels

In this article, selected studies are reviewed with a focus on the analysis of microstructure development in steel weld metals. In the study of austenitic stainless steel weld metals, microstructure development in the primary ferrite solidification mode (FA mode) was clarified and related to why FAmode welds are resistant to hot cracking. In studies of duplex stainless steel weld metals and high-Cr ferritic stainless steel weld metals, nitrogen-driven microstructure development and TiN-assisted grain refinement, respectively, were described, and discussions about the mechanism of equiaxed grain formation in the weld metals were added in the latter. In the study of low-alloy steel weld metals, the roles of titanium oxide and titanium nitride (TiN) inclusions on intragranular ferrite formation and the refinement of weld microstructure were described based on crystallographic analysis and the first principles calculation. At the end, the potential importance of the application of different multiscale, multiphysics simulations to welding research was pointed out.

Thermal conditions of coated electrode welding of heat-resistant low-alloy steels

Thermal conditions of coated electrode welding of heat-resistant low-alloy steels

Impact Toughness and Microstructure of Low-Alloy Steel Weld Produced by Automatic Submerged Arc Welding

Impact Toughness and Microstructure of Low-Alloy Steel Weld Produced by Automatic Submerged Arc Welding

Study on the Microstructure and Properties of Welded Joints of Laser Shock Peening on HC420LA Low-Alloy High-Tensile Steel.

Laser shock peening is a promising surface strengthening technology that can effectively improve the mechanical properties of materials. This paper is based on the laser shock peening process for HC420LA low-alloy high-strength steel weldments. Contrast analysis of the evolution of the microstructure, residual stress distribution and mechanical properties of the welded joints before and after the laser shock peening on each region is carried out; a combination of tensile fracture and impact toughness fracture morphology analyses of laser shock peening on the welded joint strength and toughness regulation mechanism are also completed. The results show that the laser shock peening can refine the microstructure of the welded joint effectively, the microhardness of all areas of the joint increases and the weld residual tensile stresses are transformed into beneficial residual compressive stresses, affecting a layer depth of 600 μm. In addition, the strength and impact toughness of welded joints of HC420LA low-alloy high-strength steel are improved.

Improvements in welding continuous cooling transformation diagram of high-strength low-alloy steel weld

The welding continuous cooling transformation (CCT) diagram concerning microstructure evolution in a fine zone of the weld joint provides essential data for microstructure control in practice. In this study, a welding CCT diagram was improved to be elaborate by using the expanded lever rule. Processes for obtaining pieces of phase information are explained in detail. Improvements are: (i) phase areas are clearly presented, (ii) phase volume percentages are given, and (iii) overlapped phase areas are revealed. To meet high-strength requirement, a heat input of 21 kJ cm−1 was referenced from the welding CCT diagram, for achieving acicular ferrite and lath-like martensite. Transformed phase volume fractions are estimated and high strength and good toughness are obtained due to the elaborate phase information.

Microstructure and Impact Toughness of Acicular Ferrite in Low Alloy Steel Weld Joints from Results of Multiple Impact Bending Tests

Microstructure and Impact Toughness of Acicular Ferrite in Low Alloy Steel Weld Joints from Results of Multiple Impact Bending Tests

A Comparative Study on Microstructural Characterization of Thick High Strength Low Alloy Steel Weld by Arc Welding and Laser Welding

Welding and the behavior of the weldments are important, since welding of high strength low alloy (HSLA) steels is a conventional method for manufacturing industrial parts. This work conducts a comparative investigation of microstructural characteristics and mechanical properties for joints of 16-mm-thick HSLA Q890 steel produced by multi-layer multi-pass shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) with filler wire and single-layer autogenous laser beam welding (LBW). The mechanical properties of the welded joints were assessed in terms of tensile and impact using butt joints. The results show that tensile failure occurred in the base metal during the tensile tests for most of the trials. The ultimate tensile strength and percent elongation of the LBW welded joint (973.5 MPa and 10%) are higher than those of the SMAW joint (951 MPa and 2.9%) due to the filler filling process of the SMAW process. The Charpy impact energy of the weld metal (16.4 J and 15.1 J) is lower than that of the heat-affected zone (18.5 J and 19.5 J) in the LBW joint and the SMAW joint.

Effect of Local Fluid Disturbance Induced by Weld Reinforcement Height on the Corrosion of a Low Alloy Steel Weld

Weld corrosion exists widely in the petrochemical industry and attracts great attention. Most research proves that weld corrosion originates from the material factors introduced during the welding process. However, it is noted that local fluid turbulence due to the weld reinforcement height (WRH) plays an important role in the non-uniform corrosion of welds in flowing media. Accordingly, the individual effect of the local flow on the weld corrosion of low alloy steel was analyzed by experiments and simulation in this study. Electrochemical measurements and morphology observation were conducted, combined with flow field analyses. The results showed that local fluid turbulence due to WRH affected the non-uniform corrosion of low alloy steel welds. The upstream surface and the backflow surface had the highest and lowest corrosion rates, respectively. Interestingly, the high flow velocity surface region did not have a high-corrosion rate. This is due to the combined effects of mass transfer, charge transfer, and wall shear stress. The pitting corrosion was also discussed in view of the aspects above.

ІМПУЛЬСНІ СТАБІЛІЗАТОРИ ГОРІННЯ ДУГИ ПРИ ЗВАРЮВАННІ ЗМІННИМ СТРУМОМ ПРОМИСЛОВОЇ ЧАСТОТИ

The work deals with the development of AC welding arc stabilization devices that provide a qualitatively different level of functionality to industrial frequency welding transformers. It is shown that despite the rapid spread and use of inverter sources of direct current for arc welding of metals, welding with alternating current, using simple and unpretentious welding transformers, which work at the frequency of the current of the industrial power supply network, continues to be relevant. With regard to manual arc welding with coated electrodes and a non-fusible electrode on alternating current of industrial frequency, the problem of increasing the stability of arc burning is solved thanks to the use of impulse stabilizers of arc burning. Thepurpose of the study is to increase the energy efficiency of industrial frequency alternating current welding power sources due to the development of arc stabilization devices at the modern level.The choice of the polarity of the pulses significantly affects the parameters of the stabilizing device and the AC welding process. Studies of the influence of the pulse polarity on the parameters of the pulse arc stabilizers themselves have been carried out. The schematic implementation of stabilization devices using stabilizing pulses, the polarity of which is opposite to the polarity of the arc current, is considered.The experience of using the developed stabilizers allows us to conclude that they provide sufficiently high stability of arc burning from an alternating current welding transformer during manual arc welding of low-alloy structural steels covered with electrodes, arc welding of stainless and other special steels, arc welding of cast iron, during non-fusible argon arc welding electrode of stainless steels, aluminum and its alloys with the contact method of initial ignition of the arc