Weight Preoccupation Research Articles

Preliminary evidence that estradiol moderates genetic influences on disordered eating attitudes and behaviors during puberty

Puberty moderates genetic influences on disordered eating attitudes and behaviors, with little genetic influence before puberty but large (50%) genetic effects during and after puberty. To date, however, nothing is known about the mechanisms that underlie these effects. Estradiol is a particularly promising candidate, as estrogens become elevated at puberty and regulate gene transcription within neurotransmitter systems important for eating-related phenotypes. The aim of this pilot study was to examine whether estradiol levels moderate genetic influences on disordered eating during puberty. Participants included 198 female twins (ages 10-15 years) from the Michigan State University Twin Registry. Disordered eating attitudes and behaviors were assessed with the total score, weight preoccupation, body dissatisfaction and binge eating/compensatory behavior subscales of the Minnesota Eating Behavior Survey (MEBS). Afternoon saliva samples were assayed for estradiol levels. Moderation of genetic effects was examined by comparing twin correlations in low versus high estradiol groups. In the low estradiol group, monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twin correlations for all MEBS scales were similar, suggesting little genetic influence. In the high estradiol group, the MZ twin correlation was more than double the DZ twin correlation, indicating the presence of genetic effects. Findings could not be accounted for by age, body mass index or the physical changes of puberty. Estradiol may be one important moderator of genetic effects on disordered eating during puberty. Larger twin studies are needed to replicate this pilot work and quantify the extent of genetic moderation.

Genetic and environmental influences on disordered eating: An adoption study.

Twin studies indicate significant genetic, but little shared environmental, influences on eating disorders. However, critics argue that study limitations constrain the conclusions that can be drawn. Adoption studies avoid many of these limitations, but to date, no adoption studies of eating pathology have been conducted. The current study was the first adoption study to examine genetic/environmental effects for disordered eating. Participants included 123 adopted and 56 biological female sibling pairs. Disordered eating (i.e., overall eating pathology, body dissatisfaction, weight preoccupation, binge eating) was assessed with the Minnesota Eating Behaviors Survey (Klump, McGue, & Iacono, 2000; von Ranson, Klump, Iacono, & McGue, 2005). Biometric model fitting indicated significant genetic influences (59%-82%) on all forms of disordered eating, with nonshared environmental factors accounting for the remaining variance. Shared environmental factors did not contribute significantly to any disordered eating symptom. Our findings bolster those from twin studies and provide critical evidence of significant genetic effects on disordered eating symptoms.

Puberty and the genetic diathesis of disordered eating attitudes and behaviors.

Twin studies from the Minnesota Twin Family Study (MTFS) suggest negligible genetic effects on eating pathology before puberty but increased genetic effects during puberty. However, an independent study found no pubertal differences in genetic and environmental effects (R. Rowe, A. Pickles, E. Simonoff, C. M. Bulik, & J. L. Silberg, 2002). Discrepant results may be due to methodological differences. The MTFS studies divided twins at mid-puberty, whereas R. Rowe et al. (2002) divided twins based on menarche alone. In the present study, the authors aimed to reconcile discrepant findings by examining differences in etiologic effects for disordered eating attitudes and behaviors (i.e., levels of weight preoccupation, body dissatisfaction, binge eating, compensatory behaviors) using both classification methods in a new sample of 656 female twins. Using the MTFS method (i.e., K. L. Klump, M. McGue, & W. G. Iacono, 2003), the authors observed nominal genetic effects in prepubertal twins but significant genetic effects in pubertal and young adult twins. Conversely, genetic effects were moderate and equal in all groups using the R. Rowe et al. (2002) method. Findings highlight the potentially important role of puberty in the genetic diathesis of disordered eating attitudes and behaviors and the need to use early indicators of pubertal status in studies of developmental effects.

Does self esteem moderate the relation between gender and weight preoccupation in undergraduates?

Previous research has established gender differences in self esteem as well as weight preoccupation. In addition self esteem is known to relate to weight preoccupation. However, no studies have examined whether self esteem moderates the relation between gender and weight preoccupation. Five hundred sixty seven undergraduates completed surveys assessing self esteem and weight preoccupation. Results showed significant gender differences in self esteem and weight preoccupation. In addition, the interaction between self esteem and gender had a small but significant effect on weight preoccupation. Counselors should be aware of this when designing programs to treat weight preoccupation in conjunction with low self esteem, especially for women.

Body Image, Disordered Eating, and Anabolic Steroids in Male Bodybuilders: Current versus Former Users

Purpose: To examine body image, disordered eating, and psychological characteristics typically observed in people with eating disorders in current, former, and nonsteroid-using male bodybuilders. Methods: Fifty bodybuilders recruited from local gymnasia completed anonymous questionnaires designed to assess eating attitudes, body image, weight and shape preoccupation, and general psychological characteristics. Ten subjects were classified as currently using anabolic-androgenic steroids, 12 were former users, and 28 had never used steroids. Results: Compared with former users and non-users, current steroid users reported higher scores on weight and shape preoccupation, body dissatisfaction, drive for increased muscle tone, depression, ineffectiveness, perfectionism, and interpersonal distrust. No differences emerged between former users and non-users. Conclusions: Current but not previous anabolic-androgenic steroids use is associated with considerable body image disturbance, eating-related psychopathology, and poorer psychological adjustment. Theoretical and clinical implications of these findings are discussed.

Changes in Genetic and Environmental Influences on Disordered Eating Across Adolescence

Previous research suggests substantial increases in genetic effects on disordered eating across adolescence. Unfortunately, these studies were cross-sectional and focused primarily on early (age 11 years) vs late (age 17 years) adolescence. To examine longitudinal changes in genetic and environmental influences on disordered eating across early, mid, and late adolescence. Population-based study of female same-sex twins. Seven hundred seventy-two female adolescent twins from the Minnesota Twin Family Study assessed at ages 11, 14, and 18 years. Disordered eating symptoms (ie, body dissatisfaction, weight preoccupation, binge eating, and the use of compensatory behaviors) were assessed with the total score from the Minnesota Eating Behavior Survey. Biometric model-fitting indicated significant changes in genetic and shared environmental effects across early to mid adolescence. Although genetic factors accounted for a negligible proportion (6%) of variance at age 11 years, genes increased in importance and accounted for roughly half of the variance (46%) in disordered eating at ages 14 and 18 years. Shared environmental influences decreased substantially across these same ages. Findings highlight the transition from early to mid adolescence as a critical time for the emergence of a genetic diathesis for disordered eating. The increase in genetic effects during this developmental stage corroborates previous research implicating puberty in the genetic etiology of eating disorders.

Awakening cortisol response in relation to psychosocial profiles and eating behaviors

Awakening cortisol response was measured in 78 men and women, on 3 mornings within a 2-month period. Psychosocial and eating behavior variables were assessed using self-administered questionnaires on anxiety (State–Trait Anxiety Inventory), depression (Beck Depression Inventory), body esteem (Body Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adults), and eating behaviors (Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire and Eating Disorder Inventory-2). Data on food intake and appetite sensations were also collected using a buffet-type meal test, a 3-day food record and visual analog scales measured before and after a standardized breakfast meal test. In women, high anxiety, disinhibition and hunger scores, as well as poor body esteem and a high weight preoccupation, were negatively correlated to ACR. The factor that appeared to account the most for this inverse relation was emotional susceptibility to disinhibition ( r = − 0.61, p = 0.003). The latter was also negatively associated with the satiety quotient for fullness in response to the standardized breakfast ( r = − 0.48, p = 0.010). In men, ACR was negatively associated with flexible ( r = − 0.33, p = 0.020) and strategic ( r = − 0.28, p = 0.049) restraint behaviors. This study highlights a gender-dependent relationship between ACR, hence the activity of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, and eating behaviors and psychological profiles.

Longitudinal Associations Between Externalizing Behavior and Dysfunctional Eating Attitudes and Behaviors: A Community-Based Study

This study investigated longitudinal associations between externalizing behavior and dysfunctional eating attitudes and behaviors. Participants were girls drawn from the community-based Minnesota Twin Family Study and assessed at ages 11, 14, and 17. Cross-sectional correlations indicated that the strength of the associations between externalizing behavior and dysfunctional eating attitudes and behaviors increased over time. Mixed-model analyses indicated that earlier externalizing behavior predicted increases in weight preoccupation, body dissatisfaction, and use of inappropriate compensatory behaviors. Earlier use of inappropriate compensatory behaviors predicted increases in externalizing behavior.

Should We Discuss Weight and Calories in Adolescent Obesity Prevention and Weight-Management Programs? Perspectives of Adolescent Girls

The purpose of this pilot study was to explore adolescent girls’ perspectives on potentially sensitive topics related to weight management. Data were collected using individual semistructured interviews. Thirty high school–aged girls, who were at risk for overweight and had participated in a school-based obesity prevention program, were interviewed. Data were analyzed using qualitative methodology. Girls were mixed on whether nutrition-related information and messages should emphasize weight control or health. Although girls expressed interest in weight-related issues, some had concerns that overemphasizing weight control might lead to unhealthful and excessive weight preoccupation. Whereas many girls want to receive information on weight and calories to guide their decision making about food choices, care must be taken to avoid unintended harmful consequences.

Investigation of a model of weight restricting behaviour amongst adolescent girls

AbstractObjectiveThis study examined the validity of a model predicting weight restricting behaviour both cross‐sectionally and longitudinally.MethodParticipants comprised 1207 girls aged from 12 to 14 years. The girls completed self‐report questionnaires at three time points over 1‐year intervals.ResultsThe cross‐sectional results suggested that weight preoccupation and body dissatisfaction directly predicted weight restricting behaviour. In addition, upset induced by teasing, depressive symptoms, BMI and negative attributional style demonstrated indirect effects on weight restricting behaviour through their effects on body dissatisfaction and/or weight preoccupation. Longitudinally however, only weight restricting behaviour and body dissatisfaction were significant in the prediction of weight restricting behaviour.DiscussionThe implications of the results are discussed, together with suggestions for future research. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and Eating Disorders Association.

The usefulness of experience sampling in understanding the urge to move in anorexia nervosa.

Physical hyperactivity has often been described in anorexia nervosa (AN) patients but up until now in-depth research has been scarce. Experience sampling methodology (ESM), a structured diary technique assessing momentary mental state at random times during the day, may be useful in studying hyperactivity in AN. In two single case reports, ESM was used to investigate the variation across time of the urge to move in relation to potentially relevant eliciting conditions such as positive and negative emotions, weight preoccupation and attractiveness. Frequency distribution of the involved variables indicated substantial individual differences between patients. While both patients' tendency to be hyperactive was positively related to their weight preoccupation and negative emotions, in only one patient, the urge to move turned out to be significantly related to (the absence of) positive emotions. ESM can be useful to test whether general theories of psychopathology apply to specific patients, and it may be conceived as an individually tailored approach to self-monitoring. As such, it may guide the clinician to devise therapeutic interventions in particular patients.

Weight Preoccupation as a Function of Observed Physical Attractiveness: Ethnic Differences Among Normal-Weight Adolescent Females

To examine the association between observer ratings of physical attractiveness and weight preoccupation for female adolescents, and to explore any ethnic differences between Caucasian, African-American, and Hispanic females. Normal-weight female adolescents who had participated in the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health in-home Wave II survey were included (n = 4,324). Physical attractiveness ratings were made in vivo by interviewers. Using logistic regression models stratified by ethnicity, the associations between observer-rated attractiveness and weight preoccupation were examined after controlling for demographics, measured body mass index (BMI) and psychosocial factors. Caucasian female adolescents perceived as being more attractive reported significantly greater weight preoccupation compared with those rated as being less attractive. Observed attractiveness did not relate to weight preoccupation among African-American or Hispanic youth when controlling for other factors. For Caucasian female adolescents, being perceived by others as more attractive may be a risk factor for disordered eating.

Reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST) and body change behaviour in males

According to the unrevised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory two motivational systems shape personality: a behavioural approach system (BAS) that determines sensitivity to rewards, and a behavioural inhibition system (BIS) that determines sensitivity to punishments. The role of reinforcement sensitivity in body change behaviour in males was explored with a non-clinical sample of 120 men aged 18–40 years. Self-reported symptoms of unhealthy weight loss (weight preoccupation, fasting, bingeing/purging) and body development (muscle/size preoccupation, obligatory exercise, use of chemical supplements) were regressed on measures of BAS and BIS sensitivity. Significant relationships were observed between BAS sensitivity and body development, and between BIS sensitivity and weight loss. These relationships were mediated by internalization of the athletic/muscular ideal, body comparisons, the importance of achieving one’s ideal or ‘best possible’ body (in the case of BAS but not BIS), and body dissatisfaction (in the case of BIS but not BAS). These results support the proposition that body development in males is influenced by sensitivity to rewards associated with achieving a certain body shape, and that weight loss is influenced by sensitivity to punishments associated with possessing an unsatisfactory body shape.

Beliefs and expectations regarding etiology, treatment and outcome in bulimia nervosa

To examine pretreatment client beliefs and expectations about the causes of bulimia nervosa (BN), and helpfulness of treatment. The association between outcome expectations, pretreatment characteristics, and treatment outcome was also tested. 76 BN clients completed a questionnaire assessing beliefs and expectations before participating in a randomized treatment trial. Clients attributed their BN to problems of dysphoria, low self-esteem, perfectionism, and weight preoccupation. They also anticipated a wide array of therapeutic modalities to be helpful, and expected to make changes within 7 weeks of treatment. Surprisingly, outcome expectations were not related to treatment response. Clients who were identified as treatment optimists were more likely to be older, have a longer duration of illness, and greater pretreatment depression and BN symptomatology. These results are discussed in the context of the transtheoretical model, suggesting that veteran BN clients who experience greater complications are less ambivalent and more hopeful about change.

The relationship between eating self-efficacy and eating disorder symptoms in a non-clinical sample

Most research on eating self-efficacy has focused on its relationship with eating behaviors and weight-loss in clinical populations. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between eating self-efficacy and the behavioral and psychological characteristics associated with eating disorders in a non-clinical sample of adults. A total of 219 men and women aged 18 and older completed questionnaires measuring eating disorder symptoms and eating self-efficacy. The results indicated that low confidence in the ability to control eating while experiencing negative emotions was associated with greater weight preoccupation and bulimic thought and behaviors. In addition, low confidence in ability to control eating when an abundance of food is available was inversely related to feelings of ineffectiveness or general negative self-evaluation. Ultimately, the findings suggest that low eating self-efficacy may also be associated with eating problems within populations not seeking treatment for either eating disorders or weight-loss. The implications of the findings are discussed.

Effect Of Weight Training On Risk For Disordered Eating Among Weight-preoccupied College Women

PURPOSE Disordered eating (DE) behavior is estimated to affect half of young women and can impair daily functioning, cause distress, and compromise health. Weight training (WT) has been shown to improve body image among young adults, however this effect has not been investigated in weight-preoccupied women. Our aim was to determine the effect of engaging in WT in women screened for weight preoccupation on feelings and attitudes about the self that are related to risk for disordered eating behavior. METHODS Subjects consisted of college age women who met the criteria of no regular WT within the last 12 mths and increased preoccupation with body weight. The first 2 wks of class were devoted to collecting baseline data, providing instruction on proper lifting technique, and the benefits of increasing muscular strength on non-weight related health issues. At no time were body image or weight-related issues discussed. The 8-week, progressive WT program consisted of 7 exercises targeting all major muscle groups. Subjects completed the Eating Disorders Inventory (EDI), body contour drawing scale, Self Concept Clarity (SCC) scale and Self-Esteem Scale (SES) before and after the program. RESULTS WT significantly increased 1RM strength (bench press, p<0.001; leg press, p=0.001). Baseline EDI drive for thinness (DT) scores were higher (11.2+/−3.8) than average for healthy female college students (median of 4–5). DT decreased with WT (6.3+/−5.6; p=0.058) as did other EDI subscores, but our analyses were limited by the low sample size for this survey (n=4). Results from the body contour drawing scale indicate WT improved body image. The difference between body sizes chosen to depict “how you ideally want to look” and “how you feel you currently look” decreased significantly (p=0.003) indicating that perceived appearance more closely resembled desired appearance. This was due to a significant decrease in perceived actual size (p=0.03) and not due to changes in desired body size (p=0.235). This is surprising given the significant increase in body weight that occurred (p<0.001). SCC and SES scores increased although not significantly. CONCLUSIONS The results from this pilot study suggest that engaging in WT may be an effective strategy for decreasing risk of disordered eating among young women who display heightened concerns about body weight and size. These findings are currently being confirmed in a larger sample, yet our preliminary results are significant in light of the fact that information-based programs have proven ineffective at addressing eating-related problems on college campuses and evidence suggests they can generate unintended negative consequences.

Effect Of Weight Training On Risk For Disordered Eating Among Weight-preoccupied College Women

PURPOSE Disordered eating (DE) behavior is estimated to affect half of young women and can impair daily functioning, cause distress, and compromise health. Weight training (WT) has been shown to improve body image among young adults, however this effect has not been investigated in weight-preoccupied women. Our aim was to determine the effect of engaging in WT in women screened for weight preoccupation on feelings and attitudes about the self that are related to risk for disordered eating behavior. METHODS Subjects consisted of college age women who met the criteria of no regular WT within the last 12 mths and increased preoccupation with body weight. The first 2 wks of class were devoted to collecting baseline data, providing instruction on proper lifting technique, and the benefits of increasing muscular strength on non-weight related health issues. At no time were body image or weight-related issues discussed. The 8-week, progressive WT program consisted of 7 exercises targeting all major muscle groups. Subjects completed the Eating Disorders Inventory (EDI), body contour drawing scale, Self Concept Clarity (SCC) scale and Self-Esteem Scale (SES) before and after the program. RESULTS WT significantly increased 1RM strength (bench press, p<0.001; leg press, p=0.001). Baseline EDI drive for thinness (DT) scores were higher (11.2+/−3.8) than average for healthy female college students (median of 4–5). DT decreased with WT (6.3+/−5.6; p=0.058) as did other EDI subscores, but our analyses were limited by the low sample size for this survey (n=4). Results from the body contour drawing scale indicate WT improved body image. The difference between body sizes chosen to depict “how you ideally want to look” and “how you feel you currently look” decreased significantly (p=0.003) indicating that perceived appearance more closely resembled desired appearance. This was due to a significant decrease in perceived actual size (p=0.03) and not due to changes in desired body size (p=0.235). This is surprising given the significant increase in body weight that occurred (p<0.001). SCC and SES scores increased although not significantly. CONCLUSIONS The results from this pilot study suggest that engaging in WT may be an effective strategy for decreasing risk of disordered eating among young women who display heightened concerns about body weight and size. These findings are currently being confirmed in a larger sample, yet our preliminary results are significant in light of the fact that information-based programs have proven ineffective at addressing eating-related problems on college campuses and evidence suggests they can generate unintended negative consequences.

“Following the Straight and Narrow”: An Exploratory Study of Lesbophobia and Eating Disorder Symptomatology among Lesbian Athletes

The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore internalized lesbophobia and eating disorder symptomatology among lesbian current and former athletes and the possible link between the two phenomena. In-depth interviews were conducted with 15 physically active adult lesbians who had at least 10 years of athletic experience. Lesbophobia was defined as the internalization of society’s negative attitudes and assumptions regarding lesbianism. Eating disorder symptomatology was defined as attitudes and behaviors associated with eating pathology (e.g., body dissatisfaction, weight preoccupation, fat phobia, frequent dieting, fasting, bingeing/purging, and other weight control measures). Findings suggested a connection between internalized lesbophobia and eating disorder symptomatology, that is, individuals who expressed greater negativity associated with being a lesbian, particularly concerns about being perceived as lesbian, reported more body dissatisfaction, weight preoccupation, fat phobia, and other eating disordered attitudes and behaviors. The social implications of these findings are discussed.

Self-Deceptive Enhancement and Family Environment: Possible Protective Factors Against Internalization of the Thin Ideal

We examined the degree to which self-deceptive enhancement and/or family environment moderated the relationship between awareness and internalization of sociocultural appearance standards. We administered the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire, the Family Environment Scale, the Family History of Eating questionnaire, and the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding to female undergraduate students (N = 232) and tested our predictions with moderator regression. Self-deceptive enhancement appeared to moderate the relationship between awareness and internalization. Family history of weight and appearance preoccupation also marginally moderated the relationship whereas general family environment did not. High levels of self-deceptive enhancement may serve as a protective factor against internalization of sociocultural pressures. High levels of family preoccupation with weight and appearance may have the opposite effect, making women more vulnerable to internalization. Portions of this paper were presented at the 2002 conference of the Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapy.

Personality Factors and Disordered Eating in Young Women with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus

The authors examined the association between the presence of personality variables implicated in the pathogenesis of eating disorders and the presence of eating disorder symptoms in 51 women with type 1 diabetes. Subjects were assessed with interview instruments and self-report questionnaires, including scales measuring eating disorder symptoms, borderline personality characteristics, and perfectionism. Fourteen subjects displayed moderate to severe eating disorder symptoms. Perfectionism was related to attitudinal aspects of eating disorders (e.g., weight preoccupation), and borderline personality characteristics were related to disordered behaviors (e.g., insulin omission) and poor glycemic control. The results suggest that personality factors are related to disordered eating and poor glycemic control in diabetic women.