Girder Web Research Articles

A Review of Composite Steel Plate Girders with Corrugated Webs

A corrugated steel plate girder is a vastly used structural element in numerous fields of application due to its many favorable characteristics. A corrugated web girder, the bending moments, and application forces are only transferred by means of flanges, that the maximum moment carrying capacity is more than any other hot-rolled sections used, while transverse shear forces are only transmitted through a corrugated steel web, webs at a greater depth to a thickness ratio are usually used resulting in slender sections that are susceptible to buckling on the Flat web. The use of corrugated web girders has been increasing in recent years due to optimizations in the automated manufacturing process of corrugated steel webs and a decrease in weight. Thus, to avoid buckling on the web and to obtain maximum strength, corrugations are provided in the area on the web. Corrugated steel plate girder’s ability to be used in numerous fields of application due to its preferred properties. The main advantage of the corrugated web plate girders over the hot rolled girders is the flexibility in the dimensions of the girder. Improvement in the plate girders is essential to take full advantage of this asset. This new achievement has helped engineers to design more optimized structures. This paper provides a review of several studies on corrugated steel web plate girders and plate girders improvement.

Experimental shear testing of small-scale corrugated web girders used in conventional buildings

The shear strength of steel corrugated web girders (SCWGs) has been widely investigated due to their excellent mechanical behaviour. However, experiments of SCWGs especially those of the small-scale that are used in conventional buildings are limited. Three full-scale shear capacity experiments are performed for SCWGs with different web heights and thicknesses. The developments of the strains in some critical sections and the load-deflection curves for the three specimens are measured and analysed. ABAQUS software, the worldwide finite element (FE) commercial programme, is then used to simulate the shear behaviour of SCWGs by considering the height and thickness of the webs, fold widths and corrugation angles. The available design strengths are collected and compared with the experimentally and numerically obtained strengths. The recommended design models for the different cases of SCWGs used in conventional steel buildings are then assigned. Generally, the method of Hassanein and Kharoob (2013) can best predict the strengths of SCWGs with the same fold widths, while that of Moon et al. (2009) best predicts the shear strengths of those of different fold widths. Additionally, the discussions show that the efficient shear design of SCWGs can be reached by increasing the thickness of the corrugated web, not through increasing the web height, length of flat folds and/or corrugation angles, when considering balancing factors between the weight and shear strength of webs. Finally, behavioural characteristics that enhance the design of the current girders are outlined.

Design and Experiment of an Automatic Temperature Control Device of Composite Shape-Stabilized Phase Change Material for Concrete Box Bridges

To solve the problem of bridge surface cracking caused by an uneven temperature field inside and outside the web of a concrete box structure, an automatic temperature control device applied to the beam surface of a concrete box bridge in the daytime is developed. The device, hanging on the surface of the box girder webs, consists of a radiation cooling coating and a composite shape-stabilized phase change material. With reference to a bridge in Guizhou Province, finite element analysis, short-term temperature monitoring and temperature-drop monitoring are carried out using the device. The result shows that the automatic temperature control device works well continuously. For a box girder without an automatic temperature control device, the inside and outside of the web demonstrate different sensitivities to the temperature of the external environment, with a high temperature fluctuation and a relatively high temperature stress. For a box girder with an automatic temperature control device, as the cooling coating reflects part of the solar radiation and the phase transformation of the composite shape-stabilized phase change material releases or absorbs part of the latent heat to or from the external environment, the temperature fluctuation and temperature stress of the inside and outside of the web are relatively small. When the temperature suddenly drops, the automatic temperature control device works better than under conventional weather conditions because it can reduce the external temperature by approximately 50% on the outer surface of the box girder webs.

Analysis of Changes in Parameters of Free Vibration of Single and Multi-span Girders with Semi-rigid Joints

This study presents the analysis carried out for changes in parameters of free vibrations of single-span corrugated web girders with a semi-rigid joint at midspan and multi-span girders with spans connected by semi-rigid joints. Based on the experimental tests and the theoretical analysis, the behavior of six simply supported girders with the semi-rigid joint at midspan was analyzed. They were straight and double-slope girders with a span of 6.02 m, made of corrugated web sections WTA 500/300x15 with different types of semi-rigid end plate joints. It was demonstrated that the variable rotational stiffness Sj of the joint affected the equivalent concentrated mass of the girder mz, the frequency of damped free vibrations α, damping ρ, and the frequency of free vibrations ω. The theoretical analysis was conducted for a change in the equivalent concentrated mass of the single-span girders fixed at both ends and of the multi-span girders. It was described how the change in the support stiffness in the single-span girders fixed at both ends and the change in joint stiffness of spans affected the equivalent concentrated mass mz as a function of non-dimensional stiffness k. The equivalent concentrated mass mz of the girder was found to affect the values of maximum vibrations in the structure. A continuous change in the rotational stiffness of joints was taken into account from the pinned to the rigid joint.

Accordion effect in bridge girders with corrugated webs

Plate girders possess inherent efficient structural form and offers flexibility to designer for numerous civil engineering applications. Corrugated web girder is yet another geometrical form that improves the shear buckling characteristics of the girder. The flexure and shear behavior of a corrugated profiled web is different from a conventional plate girder. Corrugated webs have low axial rigidity—thus allowing them to easily stretch or contract. This longitudinal flexibility of the web is known as the accordion effect. Previous research conservatively neglects the contribution of the web because of the accordion effect. In the present work, analytical and numerical parametric studies are carried using a validated numerical model for quantifying accordion effect in steel I-girders with trapezoidal corrugated webs. This study develops an understanding of the accordion effect on the flexural behavior of corrugated web girders. Designers can use additional flexural strength, which will result in economic structures. Based on numerical analysis, a design guideline is given to determine the flexural resistance of girders with trapezoidal corrugated webs having compact and laterally restrained flanges if certain conditions are satisfied. The proposed approach considers the web participation factor as a parameter for quantifying the accordion effect.

Design shear strength of CWGs with web-circular opening made of HSB800-high strength steel

In recent years, high-strength steel (HSS) has been widely used in many applications due to its high shear strength, low material consumption and lightweight. Due to the need for the installation of pipelines and mechanical equipment, the use of web opening is necessary in such structures. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the shear strength of HSB800 corrugated web girders (HSB800-CWGs) with circular opening. Firstly, a finite element (FE) model was established by ABAQUS and verified through the existing experimental results found in the literature. Thereafter, 742 FE models were established to investigate the shear strength and failure characteristics of the HSB800 corrugated web girders (HSB800-CWGs) with circular opening. The results show that the presence of an opening in the HSB800-CWGs reduces the shear strength. Furthermore, HSB800-CWGs with circular opening tend to experience failure under global buckling rather than local of intermediate buckling at the vicinity of the opening. As the opening position shifts longitudinally, the shear strength varies significantly according to the opening’s location on the corrugated web waves. While, when the opening position changes laterally, the shear strength increases gradually if |ey/hw| > 0.2. Finally, a calculation formula for the elastic–plastic shear strength of HSB800-CWGs with an opening is proposed by regression analysis using MATLAB programing language.

A Method for Monitoring the Technical Condition of Large-Scale Bearing Nodes in the Bodies of Machines Operating for Extended Periods of Time

Failure of systems applied in machines comprising rolling and slewing bearings usually causes downtime of the entire heavy machine. The problem of failures can be aggravated by extremely difficult operating conditions, such as significant loads or a harsh environment. The entire issue inspired us to develop a method of monitoring the condition of such units. A study was carried out for six different large-scale excavators which examined strain distributions in the tested subassemblies. In order to estimate the technical condition of wheeled bogies, we used the phenomenon of strain propagation caused by the concentrated force acting in the ring girder web. Flamant theory was utilized to describe this phenomenon. Measurements were performed using strain gauges and the obtained results were compared with the FEM model. To determine whether bearing joints were in a good or bad condition, a coefficient of variation and an impulse factor were introduced as diagnostic indicators. It turned out that by evaluating these indicators, it was possible to distinguish between these two conditions. The method was successfully validated on machines that are in operation.

Analysis of the impact of shear stress at the flange-web junction on the web behavior under concentrated and patch load

This article focuses on realistic predictions of the buckling of web plates under concentrated and patch load conceptually isolated from I-beams or box-beams. Under certain simplifications (which usually approximate practical conditions), girder web can be treated, for two limiting cases, as simply supported or simply supported and clamped rectangular plate under in-plane non-uniform loads. Any problem, including very demanding patch loading case, can then be tackled accurately using Ritz’s energy technique with double Fourier series for the deflection profile and exact stress distributions throughout the plate. The article firstly explains defined distribution of shear stresses on web-flange junction adopted, for the first time, in the analytical patch load model, and then proceeds to consider two different (but related) thematic problem types which concern various aspects of the introduction of such shear effect on stability problems of webs: firstly, how the shear stresses affect the buckling coefficients of plates and lead to an increase in load capacity due to more realistic web behavior and secondly, is there any influence of shear stresses on the existing values and shapes of interaction curves and surfaces. Analytical results in this article are compared with numerical finite element (FE) values.

Imperfection Tolerances During the Erection of Steel Plate Girders and Geometrical Nonlinearities

This work aims to prove that the strict initial imperfection tolerance limits proposed by the American AWS D1.1/D1.1M and the European EN 1090-2 codes could be relaxed for the webs of the most encountered steel I-plate girders subjected to local bend-buckling during their erection phase. To achieve this scope, a parametric study was done involving 36 perfect and 612 imperfect web models with varying aspect ratio, slenderness ratio, initial imperfection amplitude, and stress ratio using Abaqus/CAE by Finite Element (FE) linear buckling analyses then FE geometrically and materially nonlinear analyses with imperfections included (GMNIA). After investigating the results, two main research novelties were found. An easily applicable equation to determine the ultimate strength of webs subjected to direct stresses, which is a function of not only the slenderness ratio and stress ratio (as in other research) but also a function of the initial imperfection amplitude, was derived. Secondly, a tolerance limit equation that is a function of not only the slenderness ratio but also the stress ratio, thus considering the symmetry of the section of plate girders, has been derived. The derived tolerance limit equation provides acceptable and inclusive parameter-wise imperfection tolerances for webs of plate girders so as to relax strict and costly tolerance limits. The results obtained show that for monosymmetric I-plate girders during erection, EN 1090-2 and AWS D1.1/D1.1M tolerance limits can be relaxed to around 40% and 80% in less slender webs and close to 60% and 200% in more slender webs, respectively.

Numerical study of the flange buckling behavior of trapezoidally corrugated web girders

Trapezoidal corrugated web steel plate girders (TCWPGs) are heavily considered as advanced structural elements in the structural engineering branch due to their many advantages. However, not many researchers focused on studying the calculation of the capacity of these girders under bending moment and the bending behavior of these girders when it fails by flange local buckling of the slender compression flange. In this paper, an intensive parametric study has been performed on trapezoidal corrugated web girders subjected to pure bending moment to investigate and analyze the flange local buckling coefficient. Flange slenderness ratio, web slenderness ratio, flange-to-web thicknesses ratio and the trapezoidal web enclosing effect were investigated numerically to study and analyze their effect on the coefficient of local flange buckling in this type of girders. Also, bending moment resistance of these girders has been studied. The behavior of these girders has been investigated using ABAQUS FE software. A criterion of the Egyptian code for classifying the compression flanges has been found to be suitable to be used for studying the effect of web thickness on the bending moment resistance of trapezoidal web girders. Depending on the shape of the web corrugations, it is specified if the compression flange slenderness should be depending on the average outstand distance or the maximum outstand distance. Also, some important advices have been introduced for the economic and safe design of these girders to be taken in designers’ consideration. Ultimately, a new design procedure has been deduced to present a classification limit for non-compact compression flanges in plate girders with trapezoidal corrugated web.

Patch loading capacity for sinusoidal corrugated web girders

In this study, the Ultimate Patch loading Capacity (UPLC) of Sinusoidal Corrugated Web Beams (SCWBs) is investigated. First, a series of experimental tests on fifteen girders is performed. Then, a numerical model based on nonlinear finite element for simulation of the behavior of SCWBs under patch loadings is introduced. The validity of numerical model is verified by comparison of its results with experimental measurements. Then, a comprehensive parametric study using verified numerical finite element model is performed over 120 cases to investigate the effects of various parameters. A failure mechanism of SCWBs under the assumption of local elastoplastic buckling of corrugated web is developed and an analytical solution for UPLC is proposed. The finite element results of SCWBs with various dimensions as well as experimental measurements confirm the accuracy of the analytical solution, and it can be recommended for estimation of the UPLC of SCWBs at different wave dimensions and load widths.

A proposal for the local stresses in retrofitted crane runway girders due to eccentric wheel loading

AbstractGenerally, the local stresses near the web‐flange connection represent one of the most decisive criteria for the fatigue design of steel crane runway girders, particularly because every crane wheel induces an individual stress cycle and fatigue failure can potentially occur at any position of the girder's length. This paper presents a crane runway girder made of steel that has been retrofitted in the past to reduce the local bending stresses in the web, because of the installation of a new, heavier crane. This was done by additional longitudinal stiffeners to form a boxed upper flange. The local vertical stresses in the girder's web are investigated numerically and experimentally and the influence of the subsequently attached reinforcement plates, forming a boxed upper flange, is studied. Traditionally, it is state of the art to neglect any local bending stresses in the web after retrofitting the upper flange area to get a local box section. The results presented in this paper indicate that the additional local bending stresses within the upper flange box section can be significant and should not be neglected for fatigue design. Therefore, a new design concept for the calculation of the local bending stresses in webs of retrofitted crane runway girders with new boxed upper flange is proposed.

Buckling problems of patch loaded plates with and without stiffeners – analytical approach

AbstractGeneralized analytical approach, with exact stress solutions, to buckling problems of in‐plane loaded plate with and without stiffeners has been presented through the case of locally distributed direct stresses. Several mathematical models have been chosen to represent high webs of steel girders under the patch load. Initially, the basic model has been built to simulate a girder used in the experimental research where the external load is equilibrated by support reactions. The second, more complex model included shear stresses along vertical stiffeners with a task to equilibrate the external loads, simulating a single web segment between the stiffeners of a long girder. The upgrade of the second model by adding a longitudinal stiffener resulted in the third model. Considering the complexity of stress distributions within the plate under such a demanding load, an analytical model for these problems has not been presented earlier. For the first time the influence of flexural stiffeners' rigidity on the plate buckling has been analysed with the exact solutions for in‐plane stress distributions, for simply supported plate. Results confirm the high quality of the analytical solution for the first and the second model and speak in favour of this approach and its potential for further upgrading in the case of the third model.

Nonlinear imperfect analysis of corrugated web beams subjected to lateral-torsional buckling

In this paper the lateral-torsional buckling (LTB) behavior of steel trapezoidally corrugated web girders is studied by advanced nonlinear finite element (FE) analysis in order to develop new computer-based design method for the determination of the LTB strength of such innovative members subjected to pure bending. Due to the low number of previous investigations the rules of FE modelling for strength determination is not unified nor regulated in the case of corrugated web girders. In addition, standards and specifications do not provide any prescriptions on how to determine the LTB strength of corrugated web girders. The required imperfections have key role in the LTB strength determination. The paper discusses the FE modelling issues on the basis of own test results. Advanced FE model is developed, mathematically verified, and validated by experimental test results. Standards provide equivalent geometric imperfections for conventional flat web I-girders. These proposals have not been, however, investigated for the application to corrugated web girders. Thus in this paper a detailed imperfection sensitivity studies are performed and finally modelling prescriptions and required imperfections – including residual stresses and initial geometric imperfections – are developed and proposed to promote a novel FE analysis based design method for these innovative structures.

COMPOSITE ACTION OF STEEL-CONCRETE COMPOSITE BEAMS UNDER LATERAL SHEAR FORCE

The formulas for the shear capacity of steel-concrete composite beams either in current specifications or proposed by researchers do not consider the contribution of the shear resistance of the flanges of steel beams. Therefore, the calculation results are relatively high. Based on the reasonable material constitutive relations and ABAQUS, a full-scale finite element model of composite beams considering the stress characteristics of the bolts was established to study the shear properties. The accuracy of the model was verified by a comparison with existing test results in the literature. Through a parametric analysis, the boundary shear span ratio of composite beams was determined, and the redistribution rule of the internal force of the studs of composite beams under shear loads was revealed. The combination rule of the steel beam and the concrete wing plate and the sharing proportion of the shear load were also revealed. Based on the superposition principle, a formula for calculating the shear capacity of I steel-concrete composite beams considering the shear contribution of the concrete slabs, steel girder webs and flanges was presented. The comparison results show that the accuracy of the proposed formula is higher than those suggested by GB 50017−2017 and other researchers.

Effect of Design Parameters on Shear Lag in Orthotropic Deck of Steel Road Bridges

Abstract The phenomenon of shear lag refers to the increases of the bending stresses near the flange-to-web junctions, and the corresponding decreases in the flange stresses away from these junctions. In the plated structures with wide flanges, such as in the orthotropic deck of the steel road bridges, shear lag caused by shear strains, may be taken into account by a reduced flange width concentrated along the webs of the steel plate girders. In the norm EN 1993-1-5, the concept of taking shear lag into account is based on effectives width of the flange which is defined in order to have the same total normal force in the gross flange subjected to the real transverse stress distribution as the effective flange subjected to a uniform stress equal to the maximum stress of the real transverse distribution. This paper presents some aspects concerning the shear lag phenomenon and a design analysis taking into account the geometrical parameters such as the stiffeners thickness, flange width and the girder span for a steel deck of a road bridge.

Fatigue behaviour of composite girders with concrete-filled tubular flanges and corrugated webs—experimental study

This paper is devoted to experimentally and analytically evaluate the fatigue life behaviour of composite girders with concrete-filled tubular flanges and corrugated webs. Typical fatigue crack manner and stress distribution under repeated bending moment are analyzed and compared between the first and subsequent cycles. The fatigue life results are evaluated with S-N curves related to codified detail classes which are analogous to those dealing with the corrugated web girders with plain flange plates consisting of similar critical welded details. The remaining fatigue life analytical model is also developed to offer supplementary data for general fatigue behaviour of test girders. To this end, a formulation permits the tensile stress gradient along the depth and length of flange surface and combined correction factors is developed in the determinations of stress ranges. Also, the fatigue crack initiations are properly accounted at the upper surface of the bottom tubular flange where the longitudinal stress concentrates at the welded toes close to the end of the inclined fold adjoining longitudinal fold of the corrugation. The proposed formula is demonstrated to be effective in the remaining fatigue life assessment of test girders with multiple cracks based on a consistent trend between the predicted results and the test data.

Experimental numerical and analytical analysis of the penetration of a scaled double-hull tanker side structure

The paper presents experimental, numerical and analytical analyses of a small-scale double-hull structure quasi-statically punched at the mid-span by a rigid flat edge indenter, to examine its energy-absorbing mechanism and fracture. The present study aims to further validate the numerical analysis procedure and the analytical method of individual stiffened panels and web girders against the experiment of the double-hull structure. The specimen, scaled from a tanker's double side structure, includes three spans between the web frames and two spans between the stringers. The paper provides practical information to estimate the extent of structural damage within ship sides during collision accidents. The experimentally obtained force-displacement response and deformation shape show a good agreement with the simulations performed by the explicit LS-DYNA finite element solver. The analysis of the double-hull structure demonstrates the accuracy of the procedure for identifying standard inputs used in numerical codes, in particular the definition of material plastic hardening and the calibration of the critical failure strain by tensile test simulation. The experimental and numerical results are used to validate the analytical method proposed in previous investigations at the plastic deformation stage and a revised semi-analytical method is proposed in the present study for the large penetration stage.

Effect of using slender flanges on EN 1993-1-5 design model of mono-symmetric S460 corrugated web bridge girders

Eurocode (EC3) bending moment design model of mono-symmetric corrugated web girders (CWGs) is based on the critical failure mode among the tension flange yielding, the compression flange yielding and the lateral-torsional buckling (LTB) of the compression flange. Recently, LTB behaviour of S460 laterally-unrestrained mono-symmetric CWGs with fully-effective flanges has been investigated by the authors, from which EC3 design model has been modified to better represent their actual strength. Nevertheless, the effect of the local buckling (LB) of slender compression flanges on the flexural strength and behaviour of such long girders has not been examined. While the corrugated web potentially makes large contribution to the out-of-plane stiffness, LB of the compression flange is expected to reduce LTB resistance of such girder significantly. Principally, this paper is devoted to exploring such effect on the accuracy of EC3 bending moment design model. Currently, virtual tests, by using ABAQUS software, are generated based on accurate validation. Then, parametric studies, intentionally designed to eliminate the tension flange yielding, are carried out on simply supported girders considering mainly the influences of the flange and web dimensions on the behaviour of S460 mono-symmetric CWGs. The strengths of such girders are compared with EC3 design model, from which it is found to provide unsuitable predictions. Hence, new formula has been proposed to accord better with the FE results. Additionally, several conclusions are provided at the end to assist design engineers in suggesting efficient cross-sections.

Experimental study of encased composite corrugated steel webs under shear loading

This paper focuses on enhancing the shear strength of steel I-girder using different types of corrugation filled by concrete. This study used three types of corrugation shape (triangular, trapezoidal, and rectangular). Corrugation shapes had the same depth (60 mm). All specimens used in the study had equal weight, which is approximately (38) kilograms per specimen. The specimens were categorized into two groups, the first group without encasing by concrete while the second group contains self-compacted concrete to encase the corrugated steel web for two faces of I-girder. The experimental work included measuring the ultimate load capacities and load -deflection curves . The experimental results showed that the concrete filled corrugated web girders have high shear strength compared to the specimens that don’t have concrete encasing. Also, the shape of the corrugation was found to have an impact on the shear strength of the steel girders encased with concrete.