Wealthy Merchants Research Articles

Old Russia in the dock

In 1874, one of the most spectacular criminal court cases in the postreform Russian Empire took place at the Moscow district court. This was the trial against the abbess Mitrofaniia, mother superior of the Serpukhovskii-Vladichnyi convent, head of several charitable sisterhoods, born Baroness Praskov’ia Grigor’evna Rozen and lady-in-waiting of Empress Aleksandra Fëdorovna before taking the veil. Accused of having deceived and blackmailed wealthy merchants, she was sentenced by the jury and finally convicted to several years of exile. The article argues that this was a show trial, staged through the joint action of different institutions and social actors (the imperial family, ambitious jurists and journalists, enlightened bureaucrats). Through the trial, they were aiming at establishing the principles of the judicial reform of 1864, dispersing doubts about the efficiency of the new public courts with trial by jury, anchoring new forms of generally binding legal norms and proceedings in the consciousness of contemporaries, suppressing traditional informal clientele ties, restricting the privileges of the church and the high nobility, and finally, at strengthening the autocratic state’s capacity to rule. The article also shows that behind this unanimity, particularistic interests and very different ideas of how a legal system should function and in which way society and the state should be governed were articulated. It also points at the fragility of the concepts of tradition and modernity to adequately describe the actions and mental worlds of the persons involved in the court proceedings.

The Supreme Court as an Issue in Presidential Campaigns

The Supreme Court as an Issue in Presidential Campaigns WILLIAM G. ROSS Although the Supreme Court’s decisions have far-reaching political consequences and presidential elections profoundly affect the Court by determining who will appoint the Justices, the Court only sporadically has emerged as a significant issue in presidential campaigns. During the nineteenth and most of the twentieth centuries, the Court emerged as an issue only at times when its decisions were particularly controversial. During the past forty years, as voters have acquired more awareness of the political significance of Supreme Court appointments, the Court has become a persistent—but nearly always peripheral—election issue. Controversies concerning the Court, however, have provid­ ed some dramatic moments in presidential campaign history on the relatively rare occasions when candidates have placed the Court at center stage. Judicial issues first played a role in the election of 1800, when the controversy over the federal judiciary’s enforcement of the Alien and Sedition Acts may have helped to elect Thomas Jefferson to the presidency. Although this election preceded the 1801 appointment of John Marshall to the chief justiceship and the emergence ofthe Court as a powerful counterweight to Congress and the President, Jefferson’s election reflected wide­ spread discontent with the federal judiciary’s imposition of harsh penalties under these statutes, which were designed to stifle opposition to the policies ofPresident Adams, who steadfastly rejected attempts to lend American support to France in its war with Great Britain. During the election campaign, these laws acquired a political importance that exceeded their practical importance since Jeffersonians claimed that they represented a political attitude that threatened liberty itself.1 Opposition to the statutes and attacks on the federal judiciary’s enforcement of the laws encouraged John Adams to appoint Marshall to the chief justiceship during the waning days of his presidency. During the next two decades, the Marshall Court’s controversial decisions protecting vested property interests, expanding the power of the federal government and increasing the THE SUPREME COURT AND PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS 323 authority of the judiciary, generated hostility toward the Court among Jeffersonian Repub­ licans, some of whom advocated measures to curtail federal judicial power. The Court, however, was not a significant issue in presidential elections, except in 1832, when the campaign was dominated by President Jackson’s opposition to the Bank of the United States, which Congress had created to facilitate federal financial transactions and to create a source of credit for private businesses. To Jackson, this symbolized the expansion of federal power at the expense of the states and the aggrandizement of the power of wealthy merchants, financiers, and speculators at the expense of farmers, crafts­ men, and owners of small businesses. The Court could not help but to be swept into the maelstrom since it had upheld the constitu­ tionality of the Bank in McCulloch v. Mary­ land (1819),2 a decision that provided a sweeping vision of congressional power to legislate for the nation’s welfare under the Constitution’s Necessary and Proper Clause. In vetoing the renewal ofthe Bank’s charter in July 1832, Jackson declared that “[t]he opinion of the judges has no more authority over Congress than the opinion of Congress has over the judges, and on that point the President is independent of both.”3 As one scholar has explained, Jackson’s transforma­ tion of the election into a referendum on his veto “placed the constitutional role of the Court in doubt.”4 Jacksonians derogated the Court’s power ofjudicial review-even though the Court in McCulloch had not struck down the bank statute, while National Republicans claimed that criticism ofjudicial review called into question the rule of law. Jackson’s reelection , however, did not result in any erosion ofthe Court’s power. Although Chief Justice Taney and other Justices appointed by Jackson were less inclined than Marshall to favor vested property interests and the expansion ofcongressional power, the Taney Court used the power and prestige won for the Court during the Marshall era to craft a doctrine of state police power that helped to facilitate the continuation ofeconomic devel­ opment along capitalistic lines. The Court itself was not at the vortex of a presidential campaign...

경부 CT검사 시 Kernel 값과 검사자세 변화를 통한 화질개선에 관한 연구

There is a difficulty because of classifying the anatomical structure in the neck CT scan by the beam hardening artifact no more than disease and it including the 6, 7 number cervical spine and intervertebral disk. In case of enforcing the neck CT scan cause of the inner diameter of beam artifact tried to be inquired by the image evaluation according to the change of the image evaluation according to the direction of the shoulder joint applying the variation method of a posture and location and Kernel value and it was most appropriate, the lion tax and Kernel value try to be searched for through an experiment. Somatom Sensation 16 (Siemens, Enlarge, Germany) equipment was used in a patient 30 people coming to the hospital for the neck CT scan. A workstation used the AW 4.4 version (GE, USA). According to a direction and location of the shoulder joint, the patient posture gave a change to the direction of the shoulder joint as the group S it gave a change as three postures and placed the both arms comfortably and helps a group N and augmented unipolar left in the wealthy merchant and group P it memorized the both hands and ordered the eversion and drops below to the utmost and enforced a scan. By using a reconstructing method as the second opinion, it gave and reconstructed the Kernel value a change based on scan data with B 10 (very smooth), B 20 (smooth), B 30 (medium smooth), B 40 (medium), B 50 (medium sharp), B 60 (sharp), and B 70 (very sharp). By using image data which gave the change of the examination posture and change of the Kernel value and are obtained, we analyzed through the noise value measurement and image evaluation of. The outside wire eversion orders the both hands and the examination posture is cost in the neck CT scan with the group P it drops below to the utmost. And in case of when reconstructing with B 40 (medium) or B 50 (medium sharp) being most analyzed into the inappropriate posture and Kernel value and applying the Kernel value to a clinical, it is considered to be very useful.

To Inform and Delight: The Commodification of Travel Images in Amsterdam

To Inform and Delight: The Commodification of Travel Images in Amsterdam Elizabeth Sutton In the Dutch Republic of the seventeenth century, merchants employed visual culture to demonstrate their involvement in overseas trade and show off their wealth. Still lifes from the 1630s and 1640s such as those by Jan Davidsz de Heem, Willem Kalf, or Willem Claesz Heda show diverse commodities from the multiple places where the Dutch were then trading: in the East, India, Indonesia, and China; and in the West, Africa, the Caribbean, and North and South America. Gold, silver, porcelain, fruits, and spices are tantalizingly displayed in these sumptuous settings, their novelty heightened by the surface sheen of the multiple layers of oil glaze.1 Each detail is carefully depicted, each different surface texture described, exemplifying an aspect of the “mapping impulse” Svetlana Alpers considers characteristic of seventeenth-century Dutch art.2 Valuable commodities from abroad also make an appearance in merchant portraits. At the height of Dutch wealth and intercontinental trade (the “Golden Age” of the Republic), Daniel Vertangen painted West India Company (WIC) director-general Jan Valckenburgh with the trade items from which the company—and Valckenburgh personally—profited: gold and slaves. Valckenburgh was stationed at Elmina, on the coast of present-day Ghana, from 1656 to 1659 and again from 1663 until he died there in 1667. In his portrait, a slave offers Valckenburgh a gold medallion, while Valckenburgh stands confidently looking out to the viewer, one hand on his hip, the other firmly holding a baton.3 The slave and the medallion assert Valckenburgh’s social status and position in the WIC by their understood value. This “explosion” of exotic visual culture in the last part of the century reflects the successes built upon earlier Dutch trading missions.4 Paintings such as these catalogue the goods to be bought and sold in the robust consumer society of the Golden Age Dutch Republic. [End Page 325] Click for larger view View full resolution Figure 1. Daniël Vertangen, Jan Valckenburgh (1623–1667), Director General of the Coast of Guinea, c. 1660, oil on canvas, 128.3 × 102 cm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam. SK-A-4969 (photograph provided by the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam). The African servant is here like the gold medallion: an object from the Gold Coast possessed by the Dutch WIC director.5 The cataloguing of goods from trade in Dutch visual culture underscored Dutch possession of goods and of the territories from which they came. As the first [End Page 326] step in the systematization of knowledge, this pictorial cataloguing augmented the “sense of epistemic superiority” that played a significant role in the complex processes of European imperialism.6 The paintings—and the objects they showcase—are obviously products of a successful market economy. Yet before paintings depicted commodities and themselves became commodities for wealthy merchants, prints provided a wide segment of the population with images of foreign flora, fauna, and people.7 Amsterdam bookseller Cornelis Claesz capitalized on these demands by creating small, affordable, illustrated books of recent Dutch voyages.8 Claesz’s quarto travel books published between 1598 and 1603, particularly that of Pieter de Marees’s voyage to West Africa (Beschryvinge ende historische verhael van’t gout koninkrijk van Gunea, 1602), shed light on the varieties of demands that these illustrated books filled, and how diverse readers constituted a wide and often interconnected market that Claesz exploited with new information legitimated by printed illustrations. At the turn of the seventeenth century, prints in illustrated books were ubiquitous. Emblem books, along with travel accounts, were some of the most read and most viewed material culture in the Dutch Republic.9 Indeed, burghers in the large cities in the Republic had the wealth and the numbers to generate demand for books.10 As Andrew Pettegree has recently shown, the most popular books consumed in early modern Europe were newsworthy and entertaining.11 Claesz used the relatively new technology of the illustrated book as a vehicle for entertaining as well as disseminating knowledge. The travel books he published are in many ways like the contemporary emblem books meant to “instruct and delight.”12 Claesz’s illustrated travel accounts and emblem books were produced in similar...

Biographical Sketches of Wealthy Merchants in Genkai Sea Area During the Warring States Period : Their Glories and Downfalls

Biographical Sketches of Wealthy Merchants in Genkai Sea Area During the Warring States Period : Their Glories and Downfalls

Print Culture and the Medieval Author: Chaucer; Lydgate, and their Books 1473–1557 by Alexandra Gillespie

524 Reviews and printed books just as he does about Latinate style in English texts, or about the complexities of William Worcester's reading practices. His work as awhole is a fine demonstration of how to use the physical features of books in the service of a study of reception and literaryhistory. Queen Mary, University of London Julia Boffey Print Culture and the Medieval Author: Chaucer, Lydgate, and theirBooks 1473 1557- By Alexandra Gillespie. (Oxford English Monographs) Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2006. xiv+281 pp. ?62. ISBN 978-0-19-926295-3. Not forAlexandra Gillespie 'the author as a by-product of the invention of print ing: the concept of the 'auctor, compiler, maker, or poet' (p. 3) was fully formed by the time of Caxton's firstproducts in 1473-74. Renaissance ideas of authorship were not so much reinvented from classical precedents as adapted from a medi eval model that is surprisingly complex. Chaucer offershis audience a notoriously mercurial author operating through amultiplicity of narrators and personae, while Lydgate in his Siege of Thebes reauthors Chaucer's Canterbury Tales to include himself as a pilgrim narrator of a new story. The commercial production of books inmanuscript, and the use of the author function within that process, were already well established by themid-fifteenth century, as the case of Lydgate's Troy Book demonstrates. Book ownership had by then become the province of bureaucrats, minor gentry, and wealthy merchants as well as of monks and members of the nobility. Booklets made by profes sional scribes added to the ease with which amateur copyists [...], moonlighting bureaucrats, and translator-poets' (p. 50) could produce texts.Caxton's innovative enterprises benefited from and were constrained by existing modes of production and marketing, such as the already flourishing trade in imported printed books. Authors were appropriated or forgotten, and texts transformed, by printers as theypromoted their commodities in response to themarket. At the end of Troilus and Criseyde Chaucer's anxiety about the reception of his composition is tempered by the knowledge thatmisreading is endemic, and that releasing his composi tion entails a loss of control over the text, its interpretation, and his authorship. His anxieties were well placed: publishers were eager to turn 'Chaucer' to their own advantage. In 1517 de Worde appended his own verse epilogue to Troilus, emphasizing Criseyde's guilt, as a means of increasing the poem's appeal to an audience with misogynist tendencies. Printers also exploited themedieval practice of collecting together lyricsby various hands under the general rubric of'Chaucer', thereby encouraging collectors and purchasers, but in the process Chaucer's canon and interpretative profile underwent significant change. Gillespie uses to good effectproblematic evidence such as that adduced from woodcuts and proverbs. Proverbs in particular?readily appropriated by worthy and unworthy alike?epitomize that textual instabilitywhich the printing press in tensified in itsheadlong pursuit of readers and profit.Editions of Lydgate's writings, from 1509 to 1534, show as much. They also reveal how private patronage, and MLR, 105.2, 2010 525 especially the developing system of royal privilege, could be exploited to promote theworth of a book and indeed its political usefulness through both word and image: cardinal Wolsey is depicted in Lydgate's 1527 Fall of Princes as a stable figureunaffected by the turning of Fortune's wheel. The Reformation press became ameans of authorizing the new dispensation?in part by giving themedieval past a new spin. The term 'Canterbury tale' comes to denote aworthless fiction thatmight imperil true piety.At the same time,Chaucer is appropriated by JohnFoxe and others as a Protestant avant la lettre.The Pilgrim's Tale, attributed to Chaucer inGrafton's 1542 Workes, is an anticlerical text pre sented as a Canterbury tale'. If such manoeuvres helped the reformist reputation of Chaucer, theywere also themeans whereby his other, authentic, 'worthless' fictions of a bygone age continued to circulate. Lydgate, too,was cherished by anti quarians as a repository of themedieval past, and one suddenly topical again when Catholicism was briefly restored inMarian England. For presenting such matters with thoroughness, scholarly acumen, and theoretical nous, Gillespie herself richly deserves that 'good utterance' sought by early publishers for their own books. University of...

Syria's Arab Traders as Seen by Andrea Berengo, 1555-1556

Fifty years ago, Ugo Tucci published a collection of Venetian merchant letters from Aleppo, from the years 1555-1556.1 The author, Andrea Berengo, other wise unknown to history, was a prolific correspondent. Between 8 October 1555 and 22 January 1556, and 6 May ? 12 August 1556, he wrote 285 let ters; of seven other letters that have been found, only three fall in the gap just indicated, between 23 January and 5 May 1556.2 Berengo, a Venetian citizen, had worked for Venetian merchant houses in Cyprus before deciding to seek his fortune in Aleppo.3 His correspondence is rich in detail about the multiple tasks of an independent commission-agent.4 From his patrician patrons5 and from other wealthy merchants he solicits custom, inviting them to consign to him the Venetian silk cloths6 that in Aleppo were ideally to be traded for spices or for Persian silk. He also fills special orders for goods of all kinds ? truffles, or soap from Baalbek, or a kind of cotton cloth from Amman that was used

“A Lack of Legitimate Obedience and Respect”: Slaves and Their Masters in the Courts of Late Colonial Buenos Aires

“A Lack of Legitimate Obedience and Respect”: Slaves and Their Masters in the Courts of Late Colonial Buenos Aires

A Wealth of Evidence: The Identity of the Man Commemorated at Sutton Hoo

The history of England did not begin with the Industrial Revolution and not everything supposed about the Anglo-Saxons reduces to the myth of King Arthur and the Round Table. Contrary to commonly held beliefs, the Dark Ages of the North were full of splendor and brilliance; the only thing dark about them is their enshrouded history, but that only makes them all the more fascinating. The great burial mound at Sutton Hoo in East Anglia, discovered just before World War II, shines as one of the most grandiose sepulchers in history, yet the identity of its occupant remains a mystery. Was it a wealthy merchant, a warrior from overseas, or a great king? This paper gathers, presents, and scrutinizes the evidence and arguments from ancient records, opulate grave-goods, and contemporary investigations in an attempt to determine the most likely candidate for the individual interred in Mound 1 at Sutton Hoo.

Struggle for the chapel of Belgrade (1612–1643). Trade and Catholic church in Ottoman Hungary

The feud over the Catholic chapel of Belgrade took place between representatives of the Franciscan and the Jesuit religious orders living in Ottoman Hungary and the other occupied parts as well as the Bosnian and Ragusan traders. The parties even involved the local authorities and those of Istanbul, the Ragusan Republic, and above all the supreme authorities of the Catholic Church in Rome as well. The conflict erupted in 1612 when, with the backing of the Ragusan traders, the first Jesuit missionaries appeared in the town and the Bosnian Franciscans, afraid of losing their position and revenues, tried to oust them. The Jesuits, however, taking advantage of their Roman and Ragusan connections, withstood the Franciscan pressure. With the help of the Ragusans, they bought a house in the çarşı in Belgrade and secured a permit of settlement from the Ottoman authorities. The conflict lasted for over three decades, from the 1620s the real conflict was not between the Franciscans and Jesuits for the chapel but who controlled trade and markets in the occupied areas. The widening series of conflicts could not be terminated by the expulsion of the Jesuits from Belgrade in 1632. The row only abated by the beginning of the 1640s. By formulating a generalised model of the relationship between the merchants and the Church, we can conclude that the most important social medium and major factor of shaping denominations in Ottoman Hungary and the Balkans were the merchants. Due to the absence of the Christian ruling classes in regions occupied by the Ottomans, the wealthy merchants became the élite of the conquered population.

List-based Formulae in the Avadanasataka

This article is a study of formulaic passages in the Sanskrit Avadanasataka. Alongside a preliminary discussion of work on oral studies within Buddhism, and some recourse to wider oral studies on Indian texts, the focus of this article is a two-part study of formulae and constituents of formulae. The first part of the article details formulaic sections from the Avadanasataka, from short formulae about wealthy merchants to lengthy counterparts that detail the consequences of a Buddha's smile. The second part looks in detail at constituents of the formulaic passages. The passages are constructed around semantic lists, which either constitute the whole formulaic phrase or passages, or (sometimes along with verses) can be identified as the building blocks for the passages. To my knowledge (such as it is) this is the first study of semantic list-based formulae in a Sanskrit text.

From “Voluntary” to “Truly Voluntary” Associations: The Structure of the Chinese Community in French Polynesia, 1865–2005

AbstractThis article presents a historical overview of the Chinese community in French Polynesia, from its initial structuring into associations at the end of the 19th century until the restructuring that occurred at the end of the 20th century. The use of a combination of models brings into relief the correlation between class differentiation and the relative importance of sharing the same surname and ties of affinity. The analysis highlights the link between the community's internal structure and the mode of organization of Chinese associations in the guise of real estate holdings. Until recently, leadership was entrusted to a limited number of wealthy merchants and their families who were shareholders in these holdings. The termination of this system in the 1990s was linked to the change in the mode of membership to the associations and to the wider Chinese community. The shift from compulsory membership to voluntary membership is evident with the emergence of new types of associations aimed at preserving Chinese cultural identity in French Polynesia, but it is also true in the case of clan associations. The way in which modes of affiliation to the associations changed over time reveals a correlative change in the way Chinese identity is expressed today.

Music and Mass Media in the Arab Persian Gulf

In the past, the majlis or dıwanıyah a sitting room used for socializing in many Gulf homes, was often a place of music-making. In recent years, however, the ‘ud, duff, and tabl have been supplanted by satellite TV, Wi-Fi Internet connections, and video game consoles. Other long-established music-making contexts in the Gulf have also disappeared, particularly songs associated with maritime occupations that were such an intrinsic part of life in the recent past. Some of these songs were performed as accompaniments to tasks on ships, such as pulling up the anchor or setting the sail, whereas others were songs of supplication, asking God for protection from the perils of the seas (Al-Taee 2005). Traditional music in the region has also suffered from the breakdown of original patronage systems, as wealthy merchants now seek to invest in skyscrapers and artificially created islands rather than support musical ensembles. With the disappearance of these traditional music-making contexts and support networks, mass media has increasingly become the primary mode of experiencing music, both old and new, in the region.

Mercantile Practice and Conditions in the Mokpo Open Pore Market

Mokpo Port opened on October 1, 1897 and many merchants, who worked at the open ports in Busan and Incheon, etc, moved into Mokpo Port. We divided these merchants as Korean merchants and foreign merchants who put down roots in Mokpo. As Korean merchants, the commission agency had the initiative at the early of opening ports. They formed the ‘commission agency association’ for the first time and Muan Sasang Company. Through these organizations, they expanded their commercial power in opening port. But Japan pushed their colonial policies more than more, Korean commercial power contracted. Some Korean wealthy merchants pursued their profits through cooperation with Japanese colonial organization.<BR> The other side, Japanese merchants, Incheon Gaerim Jangupdan, formed their places as the Mokpo merchants. But the inland commerce right was not recognized in the early of opening port and they could not succeed because of their poor communication. But they expanded their commercial power because many Japanese moved into Mokpo and social infra was expanded through Japan pushed their colonial policies. As the result, Japanese merchants became wealthy merchants in Mokpo. The number of Chinese merchants was less than Korean and Japanese merchants. Thought they bought the land near opening port and ran the store, they did not influence to the commerce.<BR> According to the above facts. Mokpo merchants of opening port competed and developed between Korean merchants and Japanese merchants in the early of opening port. Their characteristics showed modernity and colonialness at the same time through under the rule of Japanese imperialism.<BR> Through this study, we found out the outline of existence aspects and characteristics of Mokpo opening port merchants. However, we could not investigate the detailed aspects because of the lack of personal data and study for them. This is the limit of this study. In future, it will study in detail if we find the more data to make clear.

:British Naturalists in Qing China: Science, Empire, and Cultural Encounter

The normalization of the history of China's encounter with overseas power during the Qing and Republican periods is steadily developing. Scholars in a range of fields have moved on from a reliance on narratives of imperialist assault and resistance to nuanced examinations of the dense pattern of cultural interactions that took place, and explorations of the transmission and the exchange of ideas and things among Chinese, Manchus, and their (uninvited) foreign guests. The context of such discussions remains bounded by imposed treaties (such as that of Nanking, 1842, for example), which were themselves occasioned more often than not by war or displays of military might, but no serious discussion is now tenable that fails to move beyond the gross ordinary facts of imperialism. In this book, Fa-ti Fan brings to the literature on Sino-Western interaction in the late Qing a richly textured and lively examination of the lives and works of British naturalists, both amateur and professional. These men were sent to China or worked there as consuls or customs officials, and in their spare time they engaged in research and debate on the natural history of China. The men discussed in this book range from wealthy merchants such as Thomas Beale, who before his bankruptcy and suicide in 1841 created a famous garden and aviary in Macao (pp. 44–45), to William Kerr, dispatched by the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew to collect plants in Canton, whose nine years of activity there were undermined by the practical difficulties of shipping materials back (much died in transit) and by his own social isolation and fall into drunkenness. A notable omission is the Shanghai oligarch Sir Thomas Hanbury (1832–1907), briefly mentioned in the text, whose achievement is probably the longest lasting of all the British China-hand horticulturalists, but whose famous garden, La Mortola, was developed on the Italian Riviera. The limits to British interest in Chinese natural history—the ultimate blindness of some to its richness and potential—might also profitably be explored.

A Drug on the Market: Opium and the Chinese in Southeast Asia, 1750–1880

AbstractThis article traces the early stages of Chinese migration to Southeast Asia and examines the relationship between the Chinese pioneers in the region and the opium trade of the British. The article stresses the importance of the “Water Frontier” settlements in the Gulf of Siam and the Malay Peninsula. It suggests that opium changed the relationship between Chinese merchant-capitalists and Chinese laborers in the region and acted as the basis for a longterm partnership between the merchants and the colonial powers with wealthy Chinese merchants acting as opium revenue farmers. In particular, it argues that the peranakan Chinese or locally-born Chinese, particularly those in Singapore and the other Straits Settlements, emerged as the key figures in the opium farming syndicates that grew up in Southeast Asia during the nineteenth century.

“Home Afar”: The Life of Central European Jewish Refugees in Shanghai During World War II

Since its opening to the West in 1843, Shanghai had served as destination for four waves of Jewish immigration. The first Jews to settle in China were Sephardim from Baghdad, who migrated eastward in the second half of the nineteenth century. The Sassoons, Kadoories, Hardoons, Ezras, and Abrahams became wealthy merchants, and soon acquired British citizenship. The second group consisted of Russian Ashkenazim who escaped the pogroms and the civil war following the Bolshevik Revolution. They were considered as the 'middle class' of the Jewish community in Shanghai. The third group of German and Austrian (and in smaller numbers Hungarian, Czechoslovakian and Romanian) Jews, numbering over 15,000, barely escaped the Nazi terror in the late 1930s. The fourth group consisted of about 1000 Polish Jews, including the only complete European Jewish religious school to be saved from Nazi destruction, the Mirrer Yeshiva. The International Settlement of Shanghai seemed a viable option for the desperate refugees; this in spite of the fact that the Sino-Japanese War broke out in 1937, and the Japanese, allies of Nazi Germany, occupied parts of the city. Nevertheless, in contrast to the German plan of Entjudung, the Japanese wanted to make use of alleged Jewish wealth and influence for the benefit of Japan's New Order. The official Japanese policy towards Jews stated that although Japan should avoid actively embracing Jews who had been expelled by her allies denying Jews entry would not be in the spirit of the empire's long-standing advocacy of racial equality. As a result of this policy, between the fall of 1938 and the winter of 1941, about 20,000 refugees travelled to Shanghai, their temporary home afar. During the three-year period between 1938 and December 1941 most newcomers managed more or less to integrate into Shanghai's economy, despite the fact that they had come to Shanghai out of political necessity, and not for the economic prospects. Following the outbreak of the War in the Pacific and the Japanese occupation of all sections of Shanghai, the economic situation of the refugees significantly worsened. Furthermore, as stability in Shanghai was the most important priority for the Japanese, on February 18, 1943 the military authorities issued a proclamation about the establishment of a restricted area - or ghetto, as the refugees used to call it - for stateless refugees in Hongkou, where they were confined until the Japanese surrender in August 1945. The end of the war opened up the possibility for the refugees of leaving Shanghai. However, when they were informed about the Holocaust in Europe, most did not want to return to their homeland. Many of them left for the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Latin America, and after 1948, thousands of Jews went to live in the newly established State of Israel.

M. Kasuya, A Wealthy Merchant in the Meiji Era

M. Kasuya, A Wealthy Merchant in the Meiji Era

The ‘Bourgeoisie Seconde’: Social Differentiation in the Parisian Municipal Oligarchy in the Sixteenth Century, 1500–1610

Abstract Today, political or religious movements are not generally considered to have had social origins. However, this study points to a major shift in Parisian society during the sixteenth century. The bourgeoisie, which represented a unified juridical status that transcended any distinctions within the municipal notability (royal officials, liberal professions and wealthy merchants), experienced a radical process of differentiation: the magistrates and financiers tended to base their social position on privileges other than those of the ‘bourgeoisie’. Remaining faithful to the old municipality, those bourgeois who had not yet trodden the path to royal office joined together in a huge protest movement, which culminated in the formation of the Catholic League. The method used to test these hypotheses is the reconstitution of numerous social genealogies, in as complete a fashion as possible, covering the long sixteenth century. One clear conclusion emerges as a result: at the heart of the municipal oligarchy of the years 1500–1610, the incidence of decline is just as significant as a process of social ascent. One cannot establish a direct link between these trends on the one hand, and the political crisis of the Wars of Religion, on the other, but at the very least they determined the context in which the ‘troubles’ were to develop.

Martin Delany's Blake and the Transnational Politics of Property

1Martin Delany's picaresque novel, Blake,; or, The Huts of America, tells the story of a black slave, Henry Holland, a.k.a. Blacus, a.k.a. Blake. After his wife is sold away, he escapes from a Mississippi plantation and journeys throughout the South, visiting slaves and clandestinely organizing a future outbreak of black revolutionary violence. After part 1 ends with Henry leaving New York on a ship heading for Cuba where he hopes to find his wife, part 2 picks up with Henry similarly attempting to organize rebellion in Cuba. In Cuba, we learn that Blake is the son of a wealthy mulatto merchant and was tricked into slavery when he mistakenly boarded a slave ship as a young man. There Blake eventually finds his missing wife and, in concert mostly with free, wealthy Cubans of color, continues organizing a rebellion. Delany's novel then unexpectedly breaks off at its most intensely suspenseful moment, just as it seems the coalition of Cuban slaves and free persons of color is poised for a murderous rebellion.' Written by a man who led one of the most varied lives of all nineteenth-century Americans (at different times Delany was a newspaper editor, inventor, African explorer, author, soldier, lecturer, black emigrationist, Freemason, Freedmen's Bureau official, and political candidate), this often formally clumsy novel is now recognized for its fascinating insights into the relationship between the US and Cuban slave economies immediately prior to the Civil War. Over the last decade critics have accordingly offered shrewd transatlantic and Pan-African interpretations of Blake, starting with Paul Gilroy's deeming it a cornerstone text in any theorization of a black diaspora and Eric Sundquist's analysis of the novel within hemispheric-wide discourse on slavery and American expansionism. More recently, Robert Levine