Ways Of Speaking Research Articles

The perception of multiethnolectal Zurich German: A continuum rather than clear-cut categories

Since about 2000, the emergence of so-called ‘multiethnolects’ has been observed among adolescents in German-speaking Switzerland; however, a systematic description of these varieties is lacking at present. The few existing perception studies of multiethnolects in other European countries are usually based on two or more predetermined groups that are compared. This paper investigates which labels are used for multiethnolectal Zurich German and how this way of speaking is perceived by adolescents; we adopt a perceptual sociolinguistics approach which focuses on the conceptualizations of lay people rather than on those of linguists.
 In a rating experiment, 40 adolescents listened to short speech samples of 48 pupils recorded in two different schools in the city of Zurich and were asked to rate the speakers on a 7-point Likert scale according to how multiethnolectal they sounded (not at all – very strongly). The results yielded a perceptual continuum rather than a clear-cut binary categorization [±multiethnolectal]. A smaller follow-up experiment with 12 adult raters (using the same stimuli) yielded a highly significant correlation between the mean rating scores of the two groups of raters.

Poeci i ich zwierzęta

Studia Anity Jarzyny zebrane w książce Post-koiné. Studia o nieantropocentrycznych językach (poetyckich) lokują się w polu „przeżywających” obecnie rozkwit studiów nad zwierzętami i wypracowują spójną koncepcję czytania poezji z zastosowaniem najnowszych metodologii. Pomysł Jarzyny, która poddała mikrologicznej analizie wiersze kilkudziesięciu poetek i poetów, oparty jest na śledzeniu intencjonalnych rekonfiguracji utartych wyrażeń i dowartościowaniu tropów, ponieważ, jak przekonuje Donna Haraway, to one powodują, że język „odchyla się od właściwego kursu i skręca”. Uwaga ta odnosi się nie tylko do twórczości Joanny Mueller i Justyny Bargielskiej, które przechwytują i unieważniają inwektywy łowieckie (pomiot, pokot), lecz również poetów dekonstruujących funkcjonujące w polszczyźnie oksymorony (casus Ryszarda Krynickiego), a także aluzyjnie nawiązujących do kanonicznych formuł (np. Adorna), których znaczenie ulega rozszerzeniu (casus wiersza Życie ptaków i ssaków po Kronholda). Nie jest to jedyna strategia, na jaką decyduje się Jarzyna. Zarysowuje też komplementarną narrację o zwierzęcych biografiach (np. Łajki), których nagłaśnianie wpisuje się w projekt poszerzania ludzkiej historii o nieludzkich aktorów, autorstwa Érica Barataya. Francuski historyk postuluje, że zwierzę nie może być nadal białą plamą historii, dlatego należy wypracować koncepcję czytania dokumentów i świadectw, która pozwoliłaby na zrekonstruowanie losu zwierząt. Ich sprawczość jest w świetle nowych badań niepodważalna, co podkreśla również Jarzyna. Jej projekt poddaje krytyce wiele stereotypów i zapowiada wypracowywanie nowego sposobu mówienia i myślenia o zwierzętach. Pierwszym etapem rewizji starego porządku ma być rewolucja języka i oczyszczenie go z inwektyw o podłożu animalnym i porównań, które zawsze pozostają krzywdzące dla zwierząt. W ocenie autora tekstu monografia Jarzyny wyróżnia się na tle innych publikacji sposobem prowadzenia wywodu i narracją, która wykracza poza kostyczny styl książek akademickich.

Grammar tests, de facto policy and pedagogical coercion in England\u2019s primary schools

Since their introduction by the Conservative government in 2013, primary school children in England have taken a mandated grammar, punctuation and spelling assessment, which places an emphasis on decontextualised, standardised English and the identification of traditional grammatical terminology. Despite some concise criticisms from educational linguists, there remains no detailed and critical investigation into the nature of the tests, their effects on test takers, and the policy initiatives which led up to their implementation. This article contributes to this gap in knowledge, using critical language testing as a methodological framework, and drawing on a bricolage of data sources such as political speeches, policy documents, test questions and interviews with teachers. I discuss how the tests work as de facto language policy, implemented as one arm of the government’s ‘core-knowledge’ educational agenda, underpinned by a reductive conceptualisation of language and a problematic discourse of ‘right/wrong’ ways of speaking. I reveal how teachers talk about the ‘power’ of the tests, intimidating and coercing them into pedagogies they do not necessarily believe in or value, which ultimately position them as vehicles for the government’s conservative and prescriptive language ideologies.

The lexical semantics of blaguer: French ways of bringing people together through persuasion, deception and laughter

This study presents a lexical semantic analysis of the French verb blaguer and related expressions. This verb belongs to a suite of “French humour practices”, and French-English dictionaries translate it as ‘to joke’. However, Anglo-specific terminology such as “joke” does not match the conceptual semantics of blaguer and its related noun blague. Relying on Anglo-specific terms to categorise culture-specific practices perpetuates conceptual and terminological Anglocentrism. This study furthers the call to avoid the dangers of sustaining Anglocentrism in the theoretical vocabulary of humour studies (Goddard & Mullan 2020; Goddard 2018; Wierzbicka 2014a). Working from the assumption that semantic categories reflect particular ways of speaking, thinking, and behaving, this study’s goal is to capture the insider perspective that French speakers have about the meaning of the verb blaguer and the noun blague. Making local understandings more obvious and accessible to cultural and linguistic outsiders will increase cross-cultural understanding and foster appreciation for the different ways that speakers construct and interpret their world with words (Levisen & Waters 2017). The analytical tool for this study is the technique of semantic explication couched in the simple cross-translatable and culture-neutral words of the Natural Semantic Metalanguage (Goddard & Wierzbicka 2014). Carefully chosen example sentences are drawn from Google searches (google.fr) of authentic language use of the verb blaguer and the noun blague. Comparative reference is made to the verb ‘to joke’ from Australian English to highlight the differences in the conversational humour cultures of French and English speakers (Goddard & Mullan 2020; Béal & Mullan 2013, 2017).

Under/misrepresentation of Ghanaian Languages in the Literature Curriculum in Senior High Schools

ABSTRACT In this paper, I examined how discourses about English and European/Western ways of speaking, doing, and being have been taken up in the literature curriculum and the books students are required to read. I conducted a critical content analysis of both the literature curriculum in addition to required books for students. I found that Ghanaian languages and cultures in the required books are either under-represented or inauthentically represented, even in books written by Ghanaian authors. Because students are also mainly assessed on their ability to recognize literary devices in the books they read, the curriculum fails to encourage students to critically engage with the content they read. In this paper, I argue that because Ghanaian students do not see themselves, their languages, and their own cultures in assigned books, the curriculum—rather than disrupt—reinforces an English language hegemony to the disadvantage of Ghanaian ways of speaking, doing, and being.

STEAM UGDYMO VEIKLŲ INTEGRAVIMAS Į PASAKŲ KŪRIMO PROCESĄ

At the preschool age, it is crucial for the development of children's linguistic abilities to select and purposefully apply various methods and techniques is crucial. One of the effective ways of speaking and developing a language is fairy tales. STEAM activities are increasingly used in the educational process. The idea was to combine these activities with the creation of fairy tales. We believe that integration of STEAM activities in the fairy tales creation process helps to develop children's linguistic skills, emotion perception and expression, strengthens critical and creative thinking and enables to gain problem-solving skills. Through research and experiments children learn more about their immediate environment. Children unfold their experiences and impressions in their own works. The idea of integrating STEAM educational activities in the fairy tale creation process has been implemented. The children experienced many positive emotional reactions, such as: interest, surprise, curiosity, achievement joy, sense of togetherness and closeness. This encouraged the children to become more interested, to ask questions, to tell about their impressions, to reveal them in their works. Children's critical and creative thinking and ability to solve problems increased. While taking tests, the children learned how to apply the results guessing methods. Keywords: STEAM educational activities, integration, pre-school age, creation of fairy tales.

Kahesugune tunnetus / Two kinds of knowledge

In this paper, two kinds of knowledge are compared: disembodied and embodied knowledge. The first is represented by the opening passage of Aristotle’s ‘Metaphysics’ and the second is presented by the ‘Zhuangzi’, a Daoist classic of ancient China, attributed to an eponymous author.
 At the beginning of his ‘Metaphysics’, Aristotle argues that the highest knowledge (1) is general; (2) is a knowledge of causes (not only that something is as it is, but also why it is so); (3) can be verbalized and (4) can be taught; (5) and that it requires idle time, scholē, a term that has given rise to our word for ”school”. This understanding has become so obvious in the Western tradition that similar ideas are often expressed by people who have never heard of Aristotle’s text.
 In the ‘Zhuangzi’, a contrasting ideal is set up that seems surprising to us and must have been baffling to his contemporaries in ancient China. He suggests that the highest knowledge (1) arises from specific practices and contexts; (2) does not know why it does what it does; (3) can neither be adequately be put into words (4) nor taught to others; and (5) is not associated with idle time but derives from some practical activity.
 While this second approach may seem strange, it can easily be understood if we consider the bodily practices and craftsmanship that are the basis of Zhuangzi’s view. If we follow the five points mentioned above, we notice that a skilled dancer or craftsman has an exquisite knowledge of bodily movements, tools, and materials, so that it is not simply a case of a ”particular” practical application as opposed to a ”general” theory, but also something that has its own kind of generality that differs from a theoretician’s generality in not being so explicit. It leaves a lot to the body’s implicit knowledge.
 As to the second point, a scientist who follows Aristotelian guidelines moves by elimination and explication. She eliminates the vast majority of factors and varies conditions in order to make the essential variables explicit. A craftsman or dancer, on the other hand, moves by extension and implication. She includes more and more factors in her art, more and more situational nuances (a certain kind of timber, room, season, the other people who participate in the performance, etc.). She cannot bring out a single ”cause” of her art, because, in the final analysis, the whole universe or the ”Way” (i.e. the becoming of all things) is implied in her art.
 Also, it is not the case that the bodily practitioner is unable to speak or to teach, but her way of speaking and teaching are different from relatively disembodied theoretical realms. Once again, her way of speaking and teaching involves an art of implication, the precise meaning of which remains obscure for someone who has no experience in the art (e.g. when a tin smith teaches how a hammer should be handled: ”Learn from drummers!”). It also has an indelible temporality: while in principle it is possible to instantly grasp a mathematical theorem, it is not possible to skip the essential steps involved in the study of a craft and thus artificially shorten one’s studies.
 As far as idleness is concerned, Zhuangzi’s craftsmen and body artists present a twofold challenge. On the one hand, they are not idle but involved in a practice that may have some direct utility (such as a carpenter or a butcher). On the other hand, they suggest that an Aristotelian theoretician is not idle enough, because while she may have freed herself from physical labour, she has enslaved herself to psychic or mental labour. A Zhuangzian master ”wanders freely” in her mind too, without being attached to any theoretical or mental construct, or even to the form of the theoretical or mental itself.
 In conclusion, the embodied ideal of knowledge presented by Zhuangzi is not simply a practical counterpart to the theoretical approach, but a completely different kind of attitude with its own rationale that involves an art of implication, nuance, and the thawing of actualized forms of knowledge.
 Keywords: embodied cognition, theory, practice, Aristotle, Zhuangzi

Compliment Strategies Used by The Judges in Indonesian and American Idol 2019: A Cross-Cultural Pragmatics Study

Background:
 This is a contrastive study that compares the investigation on the patterns of compliments strategies used by the judges in Indonesian Idol and American Idol 2019. This study aims at describing the compliment strategies addressed by the judges in two reality talent shows, that’s a singing competition, and to reveal the differences of cultural values between the two societies.
 Methodology:
 The data is collected from the two YouTube accounts for the top three finalists’ performance by utilizing the observation method with the note-taking technique. Ye’s compliment strategies theory (1995) and Holmes’ syntactic patterns of compliments (1995) are employed in analyzing the data.
 Findings:
 The result showed a significant difference between Indonesian and American judges in the way they give compliments. Indonesian judges prefer to use more explicit compliments while American judges prefer implicit compliments instead.
 Conclusion:
 It then revealed the contrastive cultural reflection of western people that is supposed to be ‘more ‘direct’ in the way of speaking’ (Wierzbicka, 2003). On the other hand, the finding exhibited contrast results from conventional perception upon Indonesian cultural predilection to ‘indirectness’ in the way of speaking.
 Keywords: American Idol 2019; Compliment Strategies; Cross-cultural Pragmatics; Indonesian Idol 2019; The Judges.

The Directness Levels of Criticism: A Cross-Cultural Comparative Study of Korean and American Youtuber

Background:
 Different countries may have different cultures that are influenced by their religion, traditions, or norms. These differences affect the way they speak, such as when they are commenting or giving opinions. Due to the way people express speech acts can be varied and lead to misinterpretation because of their differences, the researcher was intrigued to conduct this study.
 Methodology: 
 This cross-cultural study was carried out to observe and compare the speech act of criticism between Korean and American YouTubers and to investigate the role of their cultural background in influencing the directness level they conveyed. First, the researcher selected three Korean Youtubers and Americans as well with food review content. Second, the researcher watched one video from each channel and took notes on every expression of criticism they used.
 Findings: 
 The result of this study demonstrates that in American YouTubers speech, direct strategy emerges more frequently than the indirect one. Conversely, Korean YouTubers tend to use the indirect one. The finding also indicates that their speech behavior is related to their cultural norms, in which American culture encourages clear personal opinions, while Korean culture is a restraint to express their opinion or feeling clearly.
 Conclusion: 
 Due to the considerable difference between Korean and American YouTuber speech, it can be concluded that culture takes a significant part in shaping one’s speech behavior. That is why people with different cultural backgrounds may have different ways of speaking. 
 Keywords: Criticism; cross-culture pragmatic; directness-indirectness.

Critique of podcasting as an anthropological method

Digital audio technologies have expanded the methodological possibilities for anthropological research. This article explores some of the implications of using podcasting as an anthropological method, specifically an experiment in which interlocutor interviews were regularly published as part of an exploration into digital politics in India. The article uses the reflexive insights garnered from making the series to interrogate the possibilities of interlocutor interview podcasting for anthropology. Further to this, it exploits the interlocutors’ expertise on digital practices to reverse the analytical gaze, asking what their experiences of the digitalising Indian public sphere can teach us about changing academic/anthropological practices, especially regarding the enabling (or not) of new ways of speaking, vocal performances, the possibility for immediate publishing, and celebrations of newness. Building from these critical appraisals, it is suggested that the latent promise of interlocutor interview podcasting lies in the potential to create ‘aural intimacy' and a ‘circulating copresence'.

Model Pilihan Pembelajaran, Inquiry atau Expository?

There is no one the best learnings model compared to the other model. A learning model can be effective when it has reached the established goal. This research aims at providing the choice of learning models , whether inquiry or expository. The type of this research was literature by synthesize the literature data and previous studies. In the inquiry model, students are mentally and physically involved in solving the problem provided by the teachers, whereas the expository model, it emphasizes more on the way of speaking of teachers in delivering the material of subject

Model Pilihan Pembelajaran, Inquiry atau Expository?

There is no one the best learnings model compared to the other model. A learning model can be effective when it has reached the established goal. This research aims at providing the choice of learning models , whether inquiry or expository. The type of this research was literature by synthesize the literature data and previous studies. In the inquiry model, students are mentally and physically involved in solving the problem provided by the teachers, whereas the expository model, it emphasizes more on the way of speaking of teachers in delivering the material of subject

Promoting gender equality

Women’s rhetorical contributions have been overlooked in the field of rhetoric because the rhetorical tradition has a long history of excluding female or feminine ways of speaking and writing. It is also worth noting that the analyses of women’s writings have been restricted to the coverage of the feminist perspectives and not necessarily the domain of rhetoric and the analysis of their works of fiction. This has therefore, led to the realisation of a gap in the present paper regarding the examination of feminist rhetoric in literary studies. Through a rhetorical lens, this paper examined the arguments that demonstrate that women have immensely contributed to the liberation struggle in Namibia alongside men; hence, there is a need for equal acknowledgment. Based on the Aristotelian rhetorical theory, the study established how the arguments (logos) provided in Kaleni Hiyalwa’s novel, Meekulu’s Children, provide evidence that women indeed actively participated in the liberation struggle and how these proofs stir the readers’ emotions (pathos). Furthermore, the determination and willingness of characters (ethos) to collaborate with other characters to promote gender equality was examined. Invitational rhetoric was also used to determine whether the novel has promoted feminist principles of equality, self-determination and immanent value. The paper found that arguments can be made to provide evidence for feminist rhetorical analysis with regards to how Dila and his wife were murdered by the omakakunya; the raping of his wife, how Meekulu cooks for eendume domomufitu, and also how Kamati and Estela make seemingly insensible choices to run out of the country. As a result, these supportive arguments stimulate emotions as exemplified by the descriptions of the murder of Dila and his wife and how Ketja copes with the death of both parents, which stirs empathy from the readers. Moreover, the novel presents how the men and women of Elombe have been supportive of each other in good and bad times throughout the time of war thereby bringing to the fore views geared towards appreciating the African sense of Ubuntu. Lastly, the study determined that invitational rhetoric allows readers to participate in conversations in the novel through the use of rhetorical strategies like: emotional utterances, respect of different ideologies, and rhetorical questions.

Avoiding Ableist Language: Suggestions for Autism Researchers.

Why is this topic important?: In the past, autism research has mostly been conducted by nonautistic people, and researchers have described autism as something bad that should be fixed. Describing autism in this way has negative effects on how society views and treats autistic people and may even negatively affect how autistic people view themselves. Despite recent positive changes in how researchers write and speak about autism, "ableist" language is still used. Ableist language refers to language that assumes disabled people are inferior to nondisabled people.What is the purpose of this article?: We wrote this article to describe how ableism influences the way autism is often described in research. We also give autism researchers strategies for avoiding ableist language in their future work.What is the perspective of the authors?: We believe that ableism is a "system of discrimination," which means that it influences how people talk about and perceive autism whether or not they are aware of it, and regardless of whether or not they actually believe that autistic people are inferior to nonautistic people. We also believe that language choices are part of what perpetuates this system. Because of this, researchers need to take special care to determine whether their language choices reflect ableism and take steps to use language that is not ableist.What is already known about this topic?: Autistic adults (including researchers and nonresearchers) have been writing and speaking about ableist language for several decades, but nonautistic autism researchers may not be aware of this work. We have compiled this material and summarized it for autism researchers.What do the authors recommend?: We recommend that researchers understand what ableism is, reflect on the language they use in their written and spoken work, and use nonableist language alternatives to describe autism and autistic people. For example, many autistic people find terms such as "special interests" and "special needs" patronizing; these terms could be replaced with "focused interests" and descriptions of autistic people's specific needs. Medicalized/deficit language such as "at risk for autism" should be replaced by more neutral terms such as "increased likelihood of autism." Finally, ways of speaking about autism that are not restricted to particular terms but still contribute to marginalization, such as discussion about the "economic burden of autism," should be replaced with discourses that center the impacts of social arrangements on autistic people.How will these recommendations help autistic people now or in the future?: Language is a powerful means for shaping how people view autism. If researchers take steps to avoid ableist language, researchers, service providers, and society at large may become more accepting and accommodating of autistic people.

The Anglo-Cornish dialect is ‘a performance, a deliberate performance’

Situated at the extreme south west periphery of the British Isles, Cornwall's territorial isolation bred cultural isolation which has been construed and reconstrued over time, giving Cornwall a distinctive cultural flavour. Initially borne out by facts of geography, Cornwall, or ‘Kernow’, experiences a dynamic yet enduring peripheral existence (see Payton, 1992). This article explores how Anglo-Cornish dialect words can be used as a means of identity construction, that is, how a Cornish way of speaking is used to construct identities associated with a Cornish way of being. I hypothesise that those who desire greater Cornish autonomy are more likely to use Anglo-Cornish dialect lexis than those who favour further socio-cultural assimilation with England.

Sign Language Translation using Hand Gesture Detection

This Paper demonstrate a module on a sign to speech (voice) converter for auto Conversion of American sign language (ASL) to English Speech and text. It minimizes the gap of communication between speech impaired and other humans. It could be used to understand a speech impaired person’s thoughts or views which he communicates with others through its ASL gestures but failing to communicate due to a large communication gap between them. It also work as a translator for person who do not understand the sign language and allows the communication in the natural way of speaking. The proposed module is an interactive application module developed using Python and its Advanced Libraries. This module uses inbuilt camera of the system to get the images and perform analysis on those images to predict the meaning of that gesture and provide the output as text on screen and speech through speaker of the system that makes this module very much cost effective. This module recognizes one handed ASL gestures of alphabets (A-Z) with highly consistent, fairly high precision and accuracy.

An empirical study of the effect of acoustic-prosodic entrainment on the perceived trustworthiness of conversational avatars

Entrainment is the tendency of interlocutors to become more similar to each other in their way of speaking. This phenomenon has been repeatedly documented and is associated with multiple social aspects of human-human conversations. However, there is a dearth of research on the effects of spoken dialogue systems (SDSs) with implemented acoustic-prosodic (dis)entrainment policies. The goal of the present work is to provide further empirical evidence on how acoustic-prosodic (dis)entraining policies affect users. In particular, this article focuses on its effects on users’ trust toward the SDSs. In the experiments reported here we analyze if and how different acoustic-prosodic (dis)entrainment policies affect users’ perception of a system’s ability. We collected data from 98 unique participants, all native speakers of Argentine Spanish. Our results suggest that acoustic-prosodic (dis)entrainment in spoken dialogue systems is effectively associated with the way users perceive the capabilities of such systems. Characterizing these effects remains a challenging task. Overall, we observe a positive effect on trust of entrainment on intensity and a negative effect of entrainment on pitch. Estimated effect sizes are far from negligible.

“Attempts to Change the World Itself”: American Political Theory and Rhetorics of Political Significance

ABSTRACT Although the subfield of political theory often struggles to be recognized as producing scholarship that meaningfully contributes to the practical improvement of American political life, claims concerning the potentially immense political significance of theory work remain prominent within the subfield itself. The primary aim of this article is to demonstrate that such claims are manifestations of a rhetoric that has circulated in American political theory for much of the twentieth century. The second is to argue that political theorists should seek to modify this rhetoric. This is not only because it is incongruent with the material, institutional, and professional circumstances that largely define and increasingly contain academic political theory today. It is also because its very rootedness within the subfield may also be occluding recognition of other, more credible, and more unabashedly quotidian ways of speaking of the political significance of theory work.

Effects of adapting to user pitch on rapport perception, behavior, and state with a social robotic learning companion

Social robots such as learning companions, therapeutic assistants, and tour guides are dependent on the challenging task of establishing a rapport with their users. People rarely communicate with just words alone; facial expressions, gaze, gesture, and prosodic cues like tone of voice and speaking rate combine to help individuals express their words and convey emotion. One way that individuals communicate a sense of connection with one another is entrainment, where interaction partners adapt their way of speaking, facial expressions, or gestures to each other; entrainment has been linked to trust, liking, and task success and is thought to be a vital phenomenon in how people build rapport. In this work, we introduce a social robot that combines multiple channels of rapport-building behavior, including forms of social dialog and prosodic entrainment. We explore how social dialog and entrainment contribute to both self-reported and behavioral rapport responses. We find prosodic adaptation enhances perceptions of social dialog, and that social dialog and entrainment combined build rapport. Individual differences indicated by gender mediate these social responses; an individual’s underlying rapport state, as indicated by their verbal rapport behavior, is exhibited and triggered differently depending on gender. These results have important repercussions for assessing and modeling a user’s social responses and designing adaptive social agents.

How ordinary child language acquisition processes can lead to the unusual outcome of a mixed language

Aims and Objectives: The aim of this study is to examine the language processing mechanisms involved when young children bring structural innovations into their community way of speaking, as part of conventionalising code-switching practices to become a mixed language. Approach: The study takes a qualitative approach to the analysis of child language acquisition and adult speech data in two contexts. Data and Analysis: The study analyses naturalistic and spontaneous speech data of children and adults speaking the mixed language, Light Warlpiri, and adults older than that age group who do not speak the new mixed language. It compares an innovative auxiliary form in Light Warlpiri to child non-target speech in English with data taken from the Child Language Data Exchange System corpus. Findings: The findings are that the Light Warlpiri-speaking children used processes of re-analysis that are commonly found in child first language acquisition in other contexts to re-analyse elements of the verbal input, but because of the sociolinguistic context they created an innovative structure. Originality: The study is the first to directly compare processes of innovation in language contact with those of non-target structures in monolingual child language acquisition, identifying the same processes in each. It is also the first to show that a dramatic structural change from a linguistic perspective may be a small, incremental change from a child learner’s perspective. Significance/Implications: The significance of the study is that until now processes of innovation in language contact situations have been thought by many to differ in quality from those in monolingual child language acquisition contexts. This study shows that the child language acquisition processes are the same in each situation, but different sociolinguistic contexts lead to different outcomes for the communities’ ways of speaking. It also shows that children do not bring in new structure that is not motivated by their input; rather, they make small changes to the input they receive.