Wave Energy Converter Technologies Research Articles

Design and evaluation of a hybrid offshore wave energy converter and floating photovoltaic system for the region of Oran, Algeria

Introduction. This paper presents the novel design and analysis of a hybrid renewable energy system that combines a wave energy converter (WEC) with a floating photovoltaic (FPV) system for offshore installation, with a specific focus on Oran as a case study. The purpose of integrating these two technologies is to harness both wave and solar energy, thereby maximizing energy output and enhancing the reliability of renewable energy sources in offshore environments. The goal of this study is to develop a hybrid system that leverages the complementary nature of WEC and FPV technologies to maximize energy output and improve reliability. By integrating these technologies, the system aims to overcome the limitations of standalone energy systems. The methodology includes selecting suitable WEC and FPV technologies, optimizing their configurations, and analyzing their combined performance under various environmental conditions. To assess the energy production potential, structural stability, and economic feasibility of the hybrid system, computational simulations and data analysis are employed. This comprehensive approach ensures rigorous testing and optimization for real-world applications. The results demonstrate substantial improvements in energy yield and system resilience compared to standalone WEC or FPV systems. The hybrid system shows enhanced performance, particularly in consistent energy output and structural robustness. These findings indicate that combining WEC and FPV technologies can lead to more reliable and efficient offshore renewable energy solutions. The practical values are significant, providing insights into efficient and sustainable offshore renewable energy solutions. By focusing on Oran, it offers a localized perspective that can be adapted to similar coastal areas globally, contributing to the advancement of renewable energy technologies. The hybrid system’s enhanced reliability and efficiency support the broader goal of sustainable energy development in marine environments, highlighting its potential for widespread application and impact. References 23, tables 4, figures 17.

Oscillating water column supporting structures: A review

Abstract Numerous studies on the potential for wave energy in Indonesian waters have been conducted using Wave Energy Converter (WEC). One of the most extensively studied and developed wave energy conversion technologies is the Oscillating Water Column (OWC). Although OWC technology has the good potential, there are still several difficulties and problems that prevent its widespread development and use. One is the difficulty of keeping the systems working in hostile marine conditions. The supporting structure is an integral part of the design and operation of an OWC system. An OWC system’s structural design must guarantee lifespan, stability, and dependability in a severe marine environment. More study is required to create durable and dependable systems, mainly supporting structures functioning in these conditions. This study reviews existing literature to analyse the structural strength of OWC systems, aiming to provide insights into methods for enhancing their durability and reliability, particularly in harsh marine conditions. Key findings include the classification of various supporting structure technologies used in OWC projects, providing insights into their effectiveness and applicability in different environmental settings. Moreover, the study emphasizes ongoing efforts to address obstacles limiting the widespread adoption of OWC technology, underscoring the need for further research and development.

Maximizing oscillating water column efficiency: The impact of vertical plate and guide vane

This study is centered on improving the hydrodynamic efficiency of a conventional Oscillating Water Column (OWC) that has a rectangular cross-section. The OWC chamber is modified by introducing a centrally installed vertical plate, dividing it into two sub-chambers, and further incorporating a quarter-circle guide vane beneath the vertical plate. Physical experiments are conducted under three scenarios: the conventional single-chamber OWC, the OWC with double sub-chambers separated by a vertical plate, and the OWC with both a vertical plate and a guide vane. Hydrodynamic efficiency is examined across varying Power Take-Off (PTO) dampings, incident wave frequencies, and wave heights. Results demonstrate substantial efficiency improvements with the vertical plate, particularly at lower dimensionless wave frequencies. The guide vane also boosts these benefits by preventing vortex formation due to flow separation, resulting in a total average efficiency increase of 42 %. Visual observations highlight the transition from sloshing to piston-like motion induced by the vertical plate, contributing to increased kinetic energy and improved efficiency. The study highlights that basic but effective modifications can substantially enhance OWC efficiency, suggesting promising directions for the development of wave energy conversion technology.

Reliability modeling of different wave energy conversion technologies

Reliability modeling of different wave energy conversion technologies

Modelling of a Floating-Type Hybrid Wind-Wave System with Oscillating Water Column Wave Energy Converters: A Study Towards Floater Motion Reduction

The integration of floating offshore wind turbines with wave energy converters is regarded as a promising solution for offshore renewable energy development. Given the early stage of wave energy conversion technologies and the substantial influence of control methods on overall system dynamics, a faithful aero-hydro-thermo-elastic-servo-mooring coupled model, along with an engineering environment offering high flexibility for control implementations, is essential. To address the requirement, a numerical modeling framework is developed in this study based on Simulink, known for its superiority in control design and implementation, and OpenFAST, which offers a reliable floating wind turbine model. The model incorporates the thermodynamics of the air in chambers, power take-off dynamics, and oscillating water column dynamics. Furthermore, bypass valves are utilized for the wave energy converters to adjust chamber pressure and reduce floater motion, with a control law proposed to regulate the valve opening ratio. A case study is conducted under harsh ocean conditions to validate the model. The numerical results not only demonstrate the feasibility of the model but also underscore the effectiveness of the control law in improving floater motion performance.

On the Development of a Near-Shore Pivoting Wave Energy Converter

Numerous offshore wave energy converter (WEC) designs have been invented; however, none has achieved full commercialization so far. The primary obstacle impeding WEC commercialization is the elevated levelized cost of energy (LCOE). Consequently, there exists a pressing need to innovate and swiftly diminish the LCOE. A critical challenge faced by WECs is their susceptibility to extreme wave loads during storms. Promising concepts must demonstrate robust design features to ensure resilience in adverse conditions, while maintaining efficiency in harnessing power under normal sea states. It is anticipated that the initial commercial endeavors will concentrate on near-shore WEC technologies due to the cost advantages associated with proximity to the coastline, facilitating more affordable power transmission and maintenance. In response, this manuscript proposes a pioneering near-shore WEC concept designed with a survivability mode that is engineered to mitigate wave loads during severe sea conditions. Moreover, prior investigations have highlighted favorable resonance properties of this novel concept, enhancing wave power extraction during recurrent energetic sea states. This study employs numerical and physical modelling techniques to evaluate wave loads on the proposed WEC. The results indicate a remarkable 65% reduction in wave loads on the moving floater of the WEC during a range of sea states under the implemented survivability mode.

Experimental Validation of the Capture Chamber Model in Mutriku MOWC Wave Power Plant

Wave energy holds the potential to fulfill 15% of the EU's energy demand by 2050, thereby reducing CO2 emissions by 136 million metric tons per megawatt-hour, as outlined in the EU Energy Road Map. Similarly, the Spanish Renewable Energies Plan underscores the significant marine energy potential in Spain, particularly emphasizing wave energy. Within this framework, Oscillating Water Column (OWC) converters currently stand as among the most promising wave energy conversion technologies, offering the capability to harness ocean energy from various on-shore and floating structures. This paper introduces an analytical model of the wave capture chamber parameterized for a specific on-shore OWC wave power plant. The model is specifically adapted and parameterized for the Mutriku Marine Offshore Wave Power Plant located on the coast of the Spanish Basque Country. Subsequently, validation is conducted using both real wave entry data measured on-site and experimental output power data generated in the plant.

Multi-freedom effects on a raft-type wave energy convertor- hydrodynamic response and energy absorption

This research delves into the effects of multiple degrees of freedom on a raft-type wave energy converter (WEC), using both experimental and computational methods. The WEC features two interconnected floating bodies linked by a specialized parallelogram joint, allowing for distinct heave, pitch, and surge motions. The power take-off (PTO) system, integrating Coulomb damping, is analysed for its impact on energy absorption. Despite varying damping amplitudes, peak energy absorption is consistent across different wave periods, as shown in scaled model tests. Computational simulations further investigate the multi-freedom effects by imposing constraints on various degrees of freedom, thus elucidating their individual and combined influences on energy absorption. Preliminary results indicate that the addition of degrees of freedom can enhance the WEC's efficiency, especially through coordinated release of the bodies' relative pitch and surge motions. The study also finds that the energy absorption efficiency from pitch motion depends on the release of surge motion. Moreover, the energy distribution among each degree of freedom is significantly affected by the device's multi-freedom characteristics. This research provides valuable insights and practical guidelines for the development of advanced multi-freedom WEC technologies.

Data-based modelling of arrays of wave energy systems: Experimental tests, models, and validation

One of the key steps towards economic feasibility of wave energy conversion technology concerns scaling up to farms of multiple devices, in the attempt to reduce installation costs by sharing infrastructure, and a consequent drop in levelised cost of energy. Moreover, whenever wave energy systems are deployed in proximity (in so-called arrays), the exploitation of the hydrodynamic interactions between single devices is fully enabled, potentially increasing the final energy outcome. To achieve this in real (operational) time, the employed energy-maximising control strategies require control-oriented array models, able to efficiently describe the dynamics of these interconnected systems in a representative fashion. This can be, nonetheless, a difficult task when considering first principles alone, under small motion assumptions, for modelling purposes. Recognising the uncertainty associated to array numerical models obtained from the linearisation of simplified system equations around their equilibria, this paper presents models of several array configurations identified following a frequency domain approach on the basis of experimental data. Tailored tests on laboratory-scale devices have been designed and conducted in the Aalborg University (Denmark) wave tank facility, with the purpose of performing representative system identification of the wave energy systems arrays. The obtained models are validated on different representative sea states configurations, in controlled and uncontrolled motion operational conditions. The validation results are fully discussed and analysed in terms of standard error measures and time lag, while the obtained models are made freely accessible via a linked repository (named OCEAN), in the attempt to openly provide validated models for different array configurations.

The Energy Conversion and Coupling Technologies of Hybrid Wind–Wave Power Generation Systems: A Technological Review

Based on the mutual compensation of offshore wind energy and wave energy, a hybrid wind–wave power generation system can provide a highly cost-effective solution to the increasing demands for offshore power. To provide comprehensive guidance for future research, this study reviews the energy conversion and coupling technologies of existing hybrid Wind–wave power generation systems which have not been reported in previous publications. The working principles of various wind and wave energy conversion technologies are summarised in detail. In addition, existing energy coupling technologies are specifically classified and described. All aforementioned technologies are comprehensively compared and discussed. Technological gaps are highlighted, and future development forecasts are proposed. It is found that the integration of hydraulic wind turbines and oscillating wave energy converters is the most promising choice for hybrid wind–wave power extraction. DC and hydraulic coupling are expected to become mainstream energy coupling schemes in the future. Currently, the main technological gaps include short their operating life, low energy production, limited economic viability, and the scarcity of theoretical research and experimental tests. The field offers significant opportunities for expansion and innovation.

Improving the Amount of Captured Energy of a Point-Absorber WEC on the Mexican Coast

Although there are constant improvements in wave energy converter (WEC) technology, it is crucial to investigate site-specific sea conditions for optimal power absorption and efficiency. This study compares the efficiency of a floating buoy-type WEC device, with three differently shaped floats: a semi-sphere, a cylinder considered suitable for a location near Ensenada, on the Baja California peninsula, and a novel, rounded, semi-rectangular float. A statistical analysis of the wave climate of the last 42 years was performed to define the conditions to which the device is subjected. The WEC location was chosen for shallow waters, using a computational model that solves the modified mild slope equation. The hydrodynamic response of the three float designs was then analyzed in the frequency and time domains, using the software ANSYS AQWA 19.2, to assess the dynamics of the floating body, the forces exerted, and the power absorbed, as well as the suitability of the proposed power take-off (PTO) system. The findings show that the proposed float design absorbs the most energy, with an annual power of 135.11 MW, and that the PTO mechanism is appropriate.

Standard log-capture differentials as performance metrics for deepwater wave power generation

As a support to performance assessment of deepwater wave energy converters, this work quantifies susceptibility of output power to short duration variations, independent of source wave statistics. Introduced as ς-metrics, the quantified measures may be a basis for technology comparisons, with possible convergence to a choice for implementation. The metrics further allow comparison between different versions of a specific converter technology, thereby helping in design revision and refinement.With power conversion represented in terms of a technology specific capture width function, the log-capture differential is defined relative to a hypothetical benchmark characterised by negligible power variability. Root-mean-square aggregation of the differential further leads to standard log-capture differentials as site independent ς-metrics for a capture-and-conversion mechanism.Study results are included in three phases. First, three established wave energy conversion technologies are analysed at respective power maximums, so as to illustrate applicability of log-capture differential and ς-metrics. Next, the metrics are analysed at fractional output power to realise converter performance at reduced variability. Finally for a given marine environment, ς-metrics are shown to be useful in projection of output power variability across technologies, together with the mean output power as fraction of rated maximum.

Repulsive magnetic levitation-based electromagnetic energy harvesting of a low-frequency ocean wave

In this study, an electromagnetic energy harvester for a low-frequency ocean wave was developed in a compact 3D-printed structure. Ocean wave energy conversion technologies exist, but maintaining them in the harsh marine environment is crucial for business. Friction increases maintenance costs. Therefore, magnetic levitation, being friction-free, is used for cost-effective, low-maintenance electromagnetic energy harvesting applications. Low-frequency oscillating energy is captured using repulsive magnetic levitation with a buoy and generating electricity using a permanent magnet and copper coil. A levitating magnet is repelled by a fixed one, inducing electricity as it passes through a coil. Experiments with a 0.1 Hz sine wave mimic the average frequency of ocean waves, showing successful voltage peaks at intervals. The output voltage and measured power from the harvester exhibit variations influenced by multiple parameters. The maximum output voltage observed was 3.4 V and an average of 99 mW of power was calculated. The experiment demonstrates the feasibility of using repulsive magnetic levitation for low-frequency wave energy harvesting and also encompasses various harvester configurations, including transfer magnet forces and top magnets.

Optimizing wave energy converter benchmarking with a fuzzy-based decision-making approach.

The quest for sustainable energy solutions has intensified interest in marine renewables, particularly wave energy. This study addresses the crucial need for an objective assessment of Wave Energy Converter (WEC) technologies, which are instrumental in harnessing ocean waves for electricity generation. To benchmark WEC technologies, we employed an integrated approach combining the MEthod based on the Removal Effects of Criteria (MEREC) and the Spherical Fuzzy Combine Compromise Solution (SF-CoCoSo). MEREC provided a systematic way to determine the importance of various benchmarking criteria, while SF-CoCoSo facilitated the synthesis of complex decision-making data into a coherent evaluation score for each technology. The results of the study offer a definitive ranking of WEC technologies, with findings emphasizing the importance of grid connectivity and adaptability to various wave conditions as pivotal to the technologies' success. While the study makes significant strides in the evaluation of WECs, it also recognizes limitations, including the potential for evolving market dynamics to influence criteria weightings and the assumption that the MCDM methods capture all decision-making complexities. Future work should expand the evaluative criteria and explore additional MCDM methods to validate and refine the benchmarking process further.

Hardware in the Loop Wave Energy Converter Control Under Control Faults and Model Mismatch

Ocean wave energy conversion is operated in a challenging environment featuring massive and impulsive stresses and is subjected to large amounts of biofouling and marine growth. As most wave energy converter technologies are off-shore, operation, maintenance, and repair costs may be significant. Therefore, any cost-effective control and operation of Wave Energy Converters (WECs) must be robust to faults and changes in the operational environment. This paper presents a Bayesian policy gradient-based WEC control approach that is responsive and adaptive to faults in controller feedback, controller actuation, and changes in the plant model. The controller is tested via Hardware in the Loop real-time testbed. The results show that the proposed control is capable of adapting its policy to the loss of information from one or two sensors and recovering nearly full power operation. In the case where sensor loss occurs, after the loss of plate excitation force estimation and displacement sensors, the power decreases to 215.2 kW from 252.7 kW before recovering to 238.4 kW mean power over 20 minutes. Moreover, the Bayesian RL-based control model proves its adaptability by compensating a large portion of power loss due to PTO failures and rapid changes to the dynamic system because of non-destructive damage to the float structure.

Evaluating Wave Potential and Assessing the Economic Viability of Wave Energy Converters in the South Java Seas

As an archipelagic nation, Indonesia holds substantial potential for wave energy as a renewable resource. Certain coastlines of islands facing the Indian Ocean, particularly in the western and southern regions, exhibit significant wave energy throughout the year. To identify suitable locations for Wave Energy Converter (WEC) installation, it is essential to assess wave hindcast data. This study utilizes NOAA and ERA5 reanalysis wave data to analyze wave characteristics in Indonesia from 2008 to 2018. Data processing with Ocean Data View is employed to estimate key wave parameters at various locations, including significant wave height, mean wave period, and mean wave direction. Two locations in the South Java seas were identified for WEC installation based on this research. The average values for the period 2008 to 2018 indicate a significant wave height of around 2m, with a maximum height of 5m, a wave period of 10–14s, and a wave direction of 195–210 degrees. Notably, NOAA data suggests a higher estimation of significant wave height compared to ERA5 data. The average annual wave power potential based on ERA5 and NOAA is 164.43 MW/m and 252.15 MW/m, respectively. Furthermore, this study incorporates an economic simulation for the construction of a multi-point absorber WEC. The objective is to offer insights into the Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE) and compare it with other WEC technologies. Assuming a WEC capacity of 130 kW, the total construction cost is estimated at $2,093,725, resulting in a Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) of $91/MWh.

Development and validation of the in-house hydrodynamics code and the DNV software for TALOS wave energy converter

The Lancaster in-house code is a time-domain analysis code, developed especially for the TALOS wave energy converter, a novel wave energy conversion technology. The TALOS wave energy converter is a point absorber-like wave energy converter, but with a unique power take-off (PTO) system. The whole PTO system is fully enclosed within the structure, hence no moving parts are exposed to the harsh marine environments.
 The PTO of the TALOS WEC consists of a mass ball within the structure, with a number of springs and dampers (for instance, direct drives or hydraulic systems) connecting between the mass ball and the structure. Such an arrangement of the PTOs would make the PTO essentially non-linear, regardless whether the actual PTO dampers are linear or nonlinear as well as the linear springs. Therefore, a time domain analysis must be established for the TALOS WEC. Towards the goal, an in-house time-domain model has been developed at Lancaster University, and now it is to be validated via the delicated numerical models built using well-established commercial software (and in the future via experimental data). Within this framework, the present paper presents an effort for validation using the DNV SESAM commercial hydrodynamic and structural analysis software. 
 To build a numerical model for TALOS WEC, the Lancaster in-house time domain code is based on the hybrid frequency-time domain approach. That is, the basic hydrodynamic parameters are analysed using the panel methods (WAMIT, HAMS, NEMOH), and then the relevant parameters are transformed for the Cummins’ time-domain equation, such as the added mass at infinite frequency, and the memory effect (the convolution terms). This work is an extension of the comparison between the in-house code and the DNV SESAM software, and the comparisons would include the relevant hydrodynamic analyses, the time-domain analyses with and without the TALOS PTO system, with the aims towards developing the validated tools of both the in-house code and the commercial software.

On data-based control-oriented modelling applications in wave energy systems

The development of effective energy-maximising control strategies has a crucial role in the empowerment of wave energy technology, and in its improvement towards economic viability. Within the state-of-the-art, most of the strategies adopted to maximise the absorbed energy exploit a model of the wave energy converter (WEC) to be controlled, i.e. they are model-based. These models attempt to replicate the WEC dynamics with a sufficient degree of fidelity, trying, at the same time, to minimise their associated computational burden. However, due to the presence of the hydrodynamic effects , which inherently characterise wave energy systems, simultaneously achieving high-fidelity and computational efficiency is not trivial. Oversimplification of the problem through, for example, linearity assumptions, could lead to non-representative models and/or large uncertainty levels. To overcome these issues, in the last decade, several approaches based on data have been proposed in the wave energy field. These approaches, falling under the umbrella of system identification techniques, exploit data coming from experimental tests or high fidelity simulations, and build control -oriented models with a pre-defined level of complexity. In this paper, we analyse the different strategies that have been adopted in the literature to build data-based control-oriented models for WECs, highlighting the characteristics of each approach, together with their opportunities and inherent drawbacks. An analysis of eventual “partial” data-based modelling of WEC subsystems (e.g. moorings, PTO, or hydrodynamics only) is also reported. Moreover, considerations on the choice of inputs and outputs depending on the WEC type are reported, in an attempt to highlight the different issues that characterise the system identification problem depending on the WEC technology. Finally, conclusions are drawn regarding the capabilities that this type of approach has in (at least partially) solving the modelling issues that affect WEC control system design, and the pitfalls that pure adoption of these strategies has when applied on larger scales, or in the operational stage.

Optimisation of Air turbines for OWC Wave Energy Converters: Sensitivity of Realistic Wave Climates

Wave Energy, Oscillating Water Column, Air turbines, Optimisation, Genetic Algorithms, Wave climates.
 Among all the Wave Energy Converter (WEC) technologies suggested in the last decades, the Oscillating Water Column (OWC) technology seems to be the most robust and reliable technology. Different are currently in operation, such as the Mutriku Wave Power Plant installed in a harbour, or are being developed, such as the MARMOK floating OWC device developed by IDOM and tested for over a year in the Biscay Marine Energy Platform (BIMEP). One of the key elements of the OWC technologies is the power take-off (PTO) system that converts the pneumatic energy trapped in the chamber into electrical energy. Such PTO system consists of an air turbine coupled to an electric generator, and has been the object of several studies, including numerical and experimental works that cover a wide range of different air turbine configurations, and some of the proposed research lines even reaching to combine both approaches. The most common turbine, mainly due to its relative simplicity both on the conceptual andmechanical aspects, is the Wells monoplane turbine, including variations such as the biplane and the counter-rotating configurations. However, other configurations such as the impulse turbine or the more recent bi-radial turbine have also been analysed.
 The preliminary design of these turbines usually relies on analytical models based on the blade element method, using dimensionless parameters for representing the behavioural charts of the different configurations. In fact, in order to better represent the behaviour of air turbines in realistic conditions with polychromatic waves, it is usual to consider the stochastic version of these dimensionless parameters so that they provide an overall indicator of their sea-state-related behaviour. However, the air turbines, regardless of their configuration, include a large number of different geometrical parameters, which complicates the optimisation procedure and leads to a decision-making process that relies on an expertise-based intuition. In this sense, suggests an optimisation method based on a Genetic Algorithm (GA) that enables the articulation of all the relevant parameters. This GA-based optimisation method articulates the information about the hydrodynamic behaviour of the WEC and the pneumatic conversion within the chamber. Hence, the optimisation is sensitive to the characteristics of the wave climate and, thus, the behaviour of the WEC in that specific wave climate.
 However, in order to make wave energy economically viable, mass production of the WECs, including their PTO systems, is a crucial point. As a consequence, standard WEC floaters and PTO system elements may need to be used in the different locations under different resource conditions. In order to evaluate the sensitivity of the optimal air turbine designs to the characteristics of specific wave climates, the present study will define optimal air turbines for different locations worldwide, comparing the characteristics of the different designs.

Spectral control co-design of wave energy converter array layout

Wave energy systems are designed to maximise energy absorption from the oscillatory motion of waves, which can make a crucial contribution in a new carbon free generation matrix [1]. Thus, the global ocean energy market (including wave and tidal) is expected to grow by more than 700\% by 2028 [2]. However, the harsh conditions faced in the ocean, the strong variability of the resource, and the high force/velocity ratios pose significant challenges to the development of the different ocean energy technologies. Therefore, to date, wave energy converter (WEC) technology is still under development and still needs a significant progress to enhance the energy conversion efficiency and, consequently, to become commercial viable. Crucially, to meet these existing challenges, there are a number of key considerations to progress the effectiveness and efficiency of WEC technologies. In particular, energy maximising control systems, to maximise energy absorption, and the optimisation of WEC array schemes, to take advantage of constructive interaction effects, are currently considered as some of the key drivers for the development of efficient WECs [1]. Recent studies have shown that total design of WECs, analysing the impact of each individual component on the rest of the system, is a key methodology to achieve effective designs. For example, the levelised cost of energy (LCoE) is considered in the objective function in [3], analysing the interplay between the control system based on a spectral controller and the specifications of the power take-off (PTO) system defined as the maximum stroke and force. This methodology has been generally labelled as `co-design', or, when the development is carried out in a control-aware manner, `control co-design'. Similarly, in [4], the interaction between control and optimal WEC geometry is studied. In addition, as discussed before, another key driver in achieving effective wave energy system is the operation of WEC arrays. In particular, in [5] and [6] different array layouts are analysed in terms of computational efficiency and control, respectively. Considering the results in [5], where methods based on harmonic balance techniques are used to analyse the computational demand related to different array layouts, an assessment of the impact of different array layouts on the LCoE, is performed in this study. Figure 1 illustrates different array layouts (a), and the impact of different separation and number of WECs on the resulting LCoE (b). (Figure in PDF abstract)For the implementation of this study, a spectral control methodology is considered to virtually achieve optimal control solutions, even in constrained scenarios. In tandem, different layout templates, composed of multiple point absorber WECs, are considered. To achieve a clear global indicator based on the LCoE, each layout is analysed, in terms of the separation distance and the number of WECs, as well as capital and operation expenditure (CapEx and OpEx, respectively). Following the methodological guidelines considered in [3], a general co-design scheme is designed, essentially based on an exhaustive search method, indicating the interplay between different array layouts and LCoE.