Watershed Organizations Research Articles

Advancing freshwater science with sensor data collected by community scientists

Autonomous sensor networks providing real‐time data are growing in popularity with community scientists due to instant availability of high‐frequency data. What role does this monitoring play in watershed assessment alongside agency‐run monitoring programs? How accessible, interoperable, and reusable are the data for other researchers? We compared a community science‐led stream monitoring network—EnviroDIY—in the Delaware River Basin, in which more than 50 watershed organizations have deployed more than 100 stations monitoring temperature, electric conductivity, depth, and sometimes turbidity, with the Basin's US Geological Survey (USGS) stream gauge network. The EnviroDIY network (n = 124) complemented the USGS network (n = 102) by monitoring sites with different watershed sizes and land‐use distributions. Although data were accessible and interoperable using a web data portal, community scientists had difficulty sharing metadata that would enable data reuse outside this project and they required support analyzing these large datasets to understand threats to watershed conditions. We address those needs here with a conceptual framework for interpreting data and communicating results.

Watershed zonation through hillslope clustering for tractably quantifying above- and below-ground watershed heterogeneity and functions

Abstract. In this study, we develop a watershed zonation approach for characterizing watershed organization and functions in a tractable manner by integrating multiple spatial data layers. We hypothesize that (1) a hillslope is an appropriate unit for capturing the watershed-scale heterogeneity of key bedrock-through-canopy properties and for quantifying the co-variability of these properties representing coupled ecohydrological and biogeochemical interactions, (2) remote sensing data layers and clustering methods can be used to identify watershed hillslope zones having the unique distributions of these properties relative to neighboring parcels, and (3) property suites associated with the identified zones can be used to understand zone-based functions, such as response to early snowmelt or drought and solute exports to the river. We demonstrate this concept using unsupervised clustering methods that synthesize airborne remote sensing data (lidar, hyperspectral, and electromagnetic surveys) along with satellite and streamflow data collected in the East River Watershed, Crested Butte, Colorado, USA. Results show that (1) we can define the scale of hillslopes at which the hillslope-averaged metrics can capture the majority of the overall variability in key properties (such as elevation, net potential annual radiation, and peak snow-water equivalent – SWE), (2) elevation and aspect are independent controls on plant and snow signatures, (3) near-surface bedrock electrical resistivity (top 20 m) and geological structures are significantly correlated with surface topography and plan species distribution, and (4) K-means, hierarchical clustering, and Gaussian mixture clustering methods generate similar zonation patterns across the watershed. Using independently collected data, we show that the identified zones provide information about zone-based watershed functions, including foresummer drought sensitivity and river nitrogen exports. The approach is expected to be applicable to other sites and generally useful for guiding the selection of hillslope-experiment locations and informing model parameterization.

Research on intelligent prediction and zonation of basin-scale flood risk based on LSTM method.

Global climate change and human activities aggravate the frequency of flood disasters. Flood risk includes natural flood risk and risk of economic and social disasters, which is displayed intuitively by flood risk zonation maps. In this paper, we take the disaster-causing factors, the disaster environment, the disaster-bearing body, and the disaster prevention and mitigation capability into consideration comprehensively. Eleven influencing indexes including annual maximum 3-day rainfall and rainfall in flood season are selected, and the virtual sown area of crops is innovated. Taking the Huaihe River Basin (HRB) as the research area, the flood risk prediction of the basin is explored by using the long short-term memory (LSTM). The results show that LSTM can be successfully applied to flood risk prediction. The short-term prediction results of the model are good, and the area where the risk is seriously underestimated (the high and very high risk are identified as the very low risk) accounts for only 0.98% of the total basin on average. The prediction results can be used as a reference for watershed management organizations, so as to guide future flood disaster prevention.

Editorial Introduction: Governance, Citizenry, and Methodological Advancement in Policy Research

Editorial Introduction: Governance, Citizenry, and Methodological Advancement in Policy Research

Deciding How to Decide: Cultural Theory and Rule Making in Collaborative Watershed Organizations

The growing field of collaborative governance has long sought to explain processes of collective decision making. Insights from institutional analysis highlight the influence of rules in shaping collective decisions. Yet, less is known about how such rules are created; in other words, how collaborative organizations decide how to decide. By drawing on concepts from Cultural Theory, we examine the connections between worldviews and decision rules across four collaborative watershed organizations in Ohio, United States. Results from this comparative case analysis indicate correlations between the group dimension of worldview and decision rules about choice, as well as between the grid dimension of worldview and two different types of decision rules, choice and aggregation. These results highlight the explanatory value of integrating aspects of Cultural Theory with the Institutional Analysis and Development framework. Results also suggest how governments might more effectively engage with collaborative organizations.

The spatial distribution of critical wind erosion centers according to the dust event in Hormozgan province (south of Iran)

Wind erosion and its consequent dust storms has become one of the environmental risks in today's world, which has annually caused non-compensable destruction in environment and human health. Since wind erosion is one of the main factors of desertification which could result in dust storms, studying and locating the wind erosion centers in southern parts of Iran is of crucial importance. The aim of this study is to determine the spatial distribution of wind erosion centers associated to local dust event in Hormozgan province (south of Iran). Different factors such as soil features, climate, surface roughness, vegetation cover, topography and the length wind exposure should be investigated for zoning the potential wind erosion regions. Studies showed that many of these factors are relatively uniform for the study region. Therefore, zoning based on all of the above-mentioned factors is not efficient. For this reason, soil texture along with vegetation cover and topography were studied in the current study to zone wind erosion. First, satellite data of soil texture, normalized differential vegetation index (NDVI), and topography were used to address the potential regions of wind erosion in warm and cold periods of the year by ArcGIS. Then, the data of 14 synoptic stations in Hormozgan province were utilized to plot the maps of dust event occurrences. Finally, by combination of the satellite and synoptic data, the map of land sensitivity toward wind erosion was provided, and the obtained results were compared with observations of Forest, Ranges and Watershed Organization (FRWO) of Hormozgan province. The results indicated that there are potential regions for wind erosion and dust sources in the study region. In a way that coastal areas have the highest probability to become wind erosion centers. In this regard, Jask, Bandarabbas and Bandar Lengeh are the first three regions in terms of wind erosion; while Abu Musa has the lowest priority in terms of possessing wind erosion centers. Also, it was revealed that sensitivity to wind erosion and dust storms was higher in warm periods of the year as compared with the cold seasons. The results of this study are in agreement with the observations of FRWO of Hormozgan province. Therefore, desert greening measures and actions to prevent wind erosion can control many of dust storms in the regions.

Building a Foundation for Knowledge Co-Creation in Collaborative Water Governance: Dimensions of Stakeholder Networks Facilitated through Bridging Organizations

The sustainable governance of water resources relies on processes of multi-stakeholder collaborations and interactions that facilitate the sharing and integration of diverse sources and types of knowledge. In this context, it is essential to fully recognize the importance of fostering and enhancing critical connections within and between networks of relationships between different government and non-government agencies, as well as the dynamics that are in support of the development of new knowledge and practices. In Quebec, a network of watershed organizations (WOs) has been put in place to serve as bridging organizations (BOs) for stakeholder groups in their watershed territories. Using the WOs as a case study, this research aims to contribute to a greater understanding of how stakeholder groups can be effectively connected to support knowledge co-creation through networked relationships facilitated by BOs. In line with this overall research aim, the following research objectives are proposed: (1) to assess the quality of the knowledge that is developed and shared through the WOs and their stakeholder networks; (2) to determine the characteristics of stakeholders participating in the WOs’ networks that either hinder or support collaborations and knowledge co-creation; (3) to describe the collaborative processes and mechanisms through which the WOs facilitate stakeholder interactions and knowledge co-creation; and (4) to assess the quality of the relationships and interactions between stakeholders participating in the WOs’ collaborative networks. A comprehensive literature review is provided of collaborative network dimensions that are in support of knowledge co-creation that forms the foundation of a research framework to assess knowledge co-creation processes that are facilitated through BOs and their collaborative networks. Documented experiences have been gathered through face-to-face semi-structured interviews, as well as a Quebec-wide survey distributed to all WOs and their staff. A total of 41 interviews were conducted, of which nine interviews were with staff members of six selected WOs. Stakeholder perspectives were captured through 33 interviews with diverse stakeholders from three of the six selected WOs. Additionally, interviews were also conducted with five decision makers at the Quebec provincial government level. The findings of this study point to some key challenges and constraints for the effective facilitation of collaboration and knowledge co-creation through the Quebec WOs and their stakeholder networks. Through diverse collaborative mechanisms, most WOs have, to an extent, succeeded in creating opportunities for learning through a renewed sense making of different practices (and related identities) through the development of their watershed master plans, as well as through the facilitation of new communicative connections and translation efforts between diverse stakeholder groups. Key challenges to their effectiveness have been relating to a limited capacity and resources, limited territory-wide impacts, as well as limited perceived legitimacy that hindered the WOs as BOs in their ability to facilitate effective knowledge co-creation. Areas for further research to overcome these challenges are in developing a greater understanding of how BOs can optimize resources and capacities available in their collaborative networks through, e.g., the development of boundary-crossing leaders and competences, as well as the use of Information Communication Technology (ICT).

Implementing integrated watershed management in Quebec: examples from the Saint John River Watershed Organization

Water management in the province of Quebec has evolved rapidly in recent years. Public consultation led the provincial government to adopt a Quebec Water Policy in 2002, which was reinforced with the passing of the Quebec Water Act in 2009. This legislative tool enabled the creation of 40 watershed organizations responsible for implementing integrated watershed management (IWM). This article explains the context in which IWM has evolved in the province of Quebec. It also describes the successes, challenges and lessons learned by the Saint John River Watershed Organization in implementing IWM in a transboundary watershed.

Applying integrated watershed management in Nova Scotia: a community-based perspective from the Clean Annapolis River Project

This article examines integrated watershed management in the Annapolis River basin in Nova Scotia from the perspective of a community-based watershed organization. It draws on the experiences of the Clean Annapolis River Project (CARP) to provide a case study of the financial, institutional, human, political and social capacity of a small non-governmental organization in implementing integrated watershed management. CARP’s guiding principles of utilizing science, leadership and community engagement to achieve ecologically healthy watersheds align with an integrated watershed management approach. Using examples of CARP’s programming and projects, this article describes the successes and challenges encountered in the implementation of community-based integrated watershed management.

Reimagining watershed restoration: a call for new investment and support structures for greater resiliency and long‐term impact

Hundreds of locally based watershed initiatives have mobilized stakeholders to take voluntary action to restore the ecological conditions of North America's watersheds. Lead organizations rely on project‐based grant funding, alignment with government programs, and volunteerism to incrementally restore what is ultimately a vast and complex ecosystem. Structurally, the vision and goals of these initiatives often exceed available resources and capacity. In 1999, the Bonneville Environmental Foundation began to test ways by which a funder might increase the capacity of local watershed organizations to achieve long‐term watershed restoration goals through a 10‐year commitment of funding and technical support. We partnered with other funders, collectively seeking solutions to increase the impact of this work. Reflecting on 13 years experience across 21 watersheds in 7 western states (USA), we have concluded that the scale of ecological change desired requires a time frame for planning, implementation, and public engagement that is inconsistent with present‐day approaches. This has left us asking how can the capacity and impact of a watershed initiative be sustained over many decades—a time frame that exceeds the tenure of any individual leader, the proven life cycles of many nonprofit organizations, and the commitment of most funders? Clear themes have emerged: (1) engaging diverse stakeholders in planning, (2) orienting the work around broader goals, (3) emphasizing human well‐being, and (4) developing resilient partnerships. Reimagining watershed restoration in this context, we suggest a new agenda for action and research that emphasizes a multidecadal planning horizon integrating climate change projections and changing demographics and social values. WIREs Water 2017, 4:e1174. doi: 10.1002/wat2.1174This article is categorized under: Water and Life > Conservation, Management, and Awareness Engineering Water > Planning Water Human Water > Water Governance

Assessing capacity in watershed organizations in British Columbia: A study of reliability and resilience in organizational processes

Given the uncertainty that watershed organizations will face in the future, having the capacity to respond to the unexpected will be critical. This study assessed the reliability and capacity of watershed organizations in British Columbia (BC) to manage the unexpected, based on five interrelated behavioural processes: preoccupation with failure, reluctance to simplify, sensitivity to operations, commitment to resilience and deference to expertise. Empirical research for this article was conducted by sampling a small proportion of the more than 230 non-governmental and non-profit organizations that work towards the protection and conservation of freshwater resources in BC. Findings show that elements of four of the five behavioural processes were considered by respondents to be occurring already in watershed organizations in BC. Yet results also suggest more progress is needed in regards to overall resilience, adaptability and reliability of organizations in the face of change.

Using Social Indicators to Evaluate the Effectiveness of Outreach in Two Indiana Watersheds

Nonpoint source pollution is recognized as one of the greatest threats to water quality in the United States. Outreach is one tool that can be used to help increase public awareness and motivate action towards addressing water issues. In order to create effective outreach, we must understand public perceptions of water quality, perceived barriers to implementing environmental solutions, and what types of outreach best connect with target audiences. In 2010, social indicator surveys were distributed in two watersheds in Indiana to gather baseline data on urban and agricultural residents' attitudes towards and usage of water quality conservation practices. Local watershed organizations then used various outreach methods to encourage residents to implement specific practices. In 2014, post-project surveys were conducted in both watersheds to assess whether the outreach efforts had been effective. Even with outreach efforts, many residents still were unaware that specific water pollutants were problems in their watershed. There were, however, positive changes in overall water quality attitudes. Changes in awareness and adoption of conservation practices varied by watershed and resident type, yet generally moved in a positive direction or were unchanged. The primary barrier to practice adoption for all respondents was cost. Outreach events were generally not well attended and did little to change attendee behavior. Some outreach activities seem to be more useful than others in terms of self-reported effectiveness while others are clearly visible to the community and may be a helpful way to raise awareness.

Social Indicator Variations Across Watersheds: Implications for Developing Outreach and Technical Assistance Programs

ABSTRACTCurrent policy regarding nonpoint source pollution reduction in the United States involves encouraging voluntary adoption of Best Management Practices. Supporting the voluntary adoption of any practice requires the right combination of education, outreach, assistance, and incentives. Developing this combination necessitates an understanding of the target audience. The Social Indicators Planning and Evaluation System (SIPES) was developed to capture social information about target audiences through the use of customized but consistent survey questions. Close examination and comparison of data collected using SIPES reinforce that social characteristics differ between watersheds and that project managers in one area should not rely on descriptions from another when planning their outreach, education, and technical assistance programs. Policymakers should consider funding community-based watershed organizations to collect social data to improve targeting of water quality restoration efforts.

Towards sustainable water governance: Examining water governance issues in Québec through the lens of multi-loop social learning

The focus of this paper is on multi-loop social learning processes required to move towards more sustainable water governance. Multi-loop social learning is recognized as a crucial element to decision-making involving a process of managing change where the central methodological concern is with effectively engaging the necessary participation of system members in contributing to the collective knowledge for more sustainable policy outcomes. A research framework that provides a deeper understanding of the conditions required for the facilitation of multi-loop social learning is developed to assess the capacity for multi-loop social learning of the Québec water governance system. This research focuses in particular on six watershed management organizations and their watershed territories. In total, 41 semi-structured interviews were conducted with staff of the watershed management organizations as well as with actors and stakeholders associated with three of the six studied watershed territories. This study shows that although the watershed management organizations have the potential to fulfill a key role in facilitating multi-loop social learning, there are still a number of challenges that will need to be addressed to achieve this potential. Limited capacity and perceived credibility of the watershed management organizations and a mismatch between provincial- and local-level discourses, as well as a limited participation of a wide diversity of actors and stakeholders across different levels and scales, are examples of conditions that hinder the facilitation of multi-loop social learning in Québec. Opportunities to overcome some of these key challenges include renewing partnerships with stakeholders that have so far not been involved by exploring innovative tools for knowledge co-production, and accelerating the transition towards a more collaborative water governance system through the development of required traits and skills of current and future change makers and leaders.

When environmental action does not activate concern: the case of impaired water quality in two rural watersheds.

Little research has considered how residents' perceptions of their local environment may interact with efforts to increase environmental concern, particularly in areas in need of remediation. This study examined the process by which local environmental action may affect environmental concern. A model was presented for exploring the effects of community-based watershed organizations (CWOs) on environmental concern that also incorporates existing perceptions of the local environment. Survey data were collected from area residents in two watersheds in southwestern Pennsylvania, USA, an area affected by abandoned mine drainage. The findings suggest that residents' perceptions of local water quality and importance of improving water quality are important predictors of level of environmental concern and desire for action; however, in this case, having an active or inactive CWO did not influence these perceptions. The implications of these findings raise important questions concerning strategies and policy making around environmental remediation at the local level.

Integrating freshwater science and local management through volunteer monitoring partnerships: the Michigan Clean Water Corps

AbstractThousands of local watershed organizations and lake associations are actively involved in protection and management of freshwater systems throughout the USA. These nonprofit organizations may or may not have paid staff and rarely employ trained scientists or natural resource managers. Thus, they face challenges, including lack of access to technical assistance to support their lake and river assessment and management initiatives, and may struggle to convince decision makers of the validity of their efforts. Meanwhile, researchers and managers within academia and agencies are challenged by lack of access to long-term data sets, field sites, funding, and personnel, and sometimes struggle to demonstrate real-world application of research results and to build support for freshwater research and management programs. The Michigan Clean Water Corps (MiCorps) volunteer monitoring program is a partnership-based program involving state and regional organizations and local volunteers that has met the above c...

What Do Riparian Landowners Know and Want? Survey Results from the Headwaters of the Potomac River

The purpose of this study was to examine riparian owner concerns, land uses, and interests in protecting river/stream quality. In collaboration with local watershed organizations, mail surveys were used to collect information from riparian landowners. Descriptive statistics and probit models were utilized to analyze survey data. Study findings revealed that trash is a consistent concern of riparian owners and that owner interest in watershed organization activities is high. Furthermore, results showed that there is generally a low interest in stream improvement projects among the surveyed individuals. Respondent characteristics that increased improvement interests included agricultural or idle land uses, higher education level, concern about stream pollution, and expressed interest watershed organization activities. Availability of government cost share was found to increase landowner interest in conducting more than one stream improvement project.

Economic evaluation of tillage management practices at the watershed scale in southern Manitoba

The costs, risk, and additional management associated with the conversion of agricultural land from conventional tillage to conservation tillage play a significant role in the producers’ likelihood of adoption of such practices. A local watershed organization in the South Tobacco Creek (STC) watershed in southern Manitoba has been collecting land management data for almost 20 years. As part of the national Watershed Evaluation of Beneficial Management Practices (WEBs), a tillage index and model were developed based on field tillage operations and production costs, and net incomes. The index and model quantified economic impacts of land management practices for three crop rotations under three tillage systems at the watershed scale. Based on a tillage index to define tillage levels for zero, minimum, and conventional tillage, a tillage cost function related tillage cost to tillage passes and crop residue management. Net income of crops and typical rotations under three tillage systems has been estimated. For canola, the greatest net income was generated in the conventional tillage (CT) system, which is attributed to the yield response to the tilled seedbed. As tillage frequency decreased, net income for canola declined. In contrast, the income response for cereals, such as wheat, was highest under minimum tillage (MT) due to reduced fuel and depreciation costs relative to conventional tillage. However net income for cereals managed with zero tillage (ZT) was significantly reduced due to increased equipment costs. Using the same tillage index, the model has produced results suggesting that for a wheat–canola rotation there is a significant difference between cropping system costs in areas of labour, oil and fuel, chemical and tillage costs; however, there is no significant difference between the three tillage levels in areas of total costs and net income. Although MT overall performed better compared to ZT or CT, net income of these three different tillage systems was offset between crops of the wheat–canola rotation and generally no statistically significant differences were observed. These results explained why most farmers in the STC watershed prefer conventional or minimum tillage to zero tillage-due to increased machinery investment and lower net returns for zero tillage. If conservation tillage is to be promoted in this region of Manitoba, additional incentives may be required to encourage its further adoption. However, increased net income for conservation tillage of cereals provides a clear incentive to adopt this practice.

Use of Participatory System Dynamics Modelling for Collaborative Watershed Management in Québec, Canada

The participation of stakeholders is an important component in integrated and adaptive watershed planning and management. In Québec, Canada watershed organizations are in the process of implementing participatory based watershed planning and management schemes. However, there is a lack of simple and readily implementable frameworks and methods to explicitly involve stakeholders, as well as integrate physical and social processes in watershed planning and management in Québec. The application of the first three stages of a newly proposed five stage stepwise ‘Participatory Model Building’ framework’ is described that was developed to help facilitate the participatory investigation of problems in watershed planning and management through the use of the systems thinking approach (causal loop diagrams). In the Du Chêne watershed in Québec, eight individual stakeholder interviews were conducted in cooperation with the local watershed organization to develop qualitative system dynamics models that represent the main physical and social processes underlying the problem of water pollution. The method was found to be accessible for all the interviewees, and was deemed to be very useful by the watershed organization to develop an overview of the different perspectives of the main stakeholders in the watershed. The results of this study demonstrate the diversity of perspectives regarding the water quality problem in the Du Chêne watershed, and highlight the critical need for participatory approaches to help solve water quality problems. Based on the results generated in this study, stakeholders can jointly discuss diverging points of view, goals and interests by referring to a concrete system structure. This discussion process can again be facilitated by a group-built causal loop diagram and its subsequent conversion into a quantitative system dynamics model (describing the socioeconomic-political components of the watershed).

Sociopolitical Conditions for Successful Water Quality Trading in the South Nation River Watershed, Ontario, Canada1

O’Grady, Dennis, 2011. Sociopolitical Conditions for Successful Water Quality Trading in the South Nation River Watershed, Ontario, Canada. Journal of the American Water Resources Association (JAWRA) 47(1):39-51. DOI: 10.1111/j.1752-1688.2010.00511.x Abstract: The South Nation River watershed has a regulated water quality trading program. Legally, wastewater dischargers must not discharge any increased loading of phosphorus (P) into receiving waters. New wastewater systems are now choosing trading instead of traditional P removal technology, and point source dischargers are buying P credits from rural landowners, primarily farmers. These credits are generated by constructing nonpoint source pollution control measures. Mathematical formulae are used to calculate the credits of P removed by each measure. A successful trading program requires several conditions, including community agreement, legislative backing, credit and cost certainty, simplified delivery and verification, written instruments, and legal liability protection. South Nation Conservation, a community-based watershed organization, is the broker handling the transactions for these P credits. The program is run by a multi-stakeholder committee, and all project field visits are done by farmers and not paid professionals. An independent evaluation showed higher opinions for the broker and regulatory agency, and most farmers were willing to, or had already, recommended the program to other farmers.