Water Storage Containers Research Articles

Susceptibility of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes to pyrethroid insecticides and characterization of breeding habitats in selected districts of Mwanza, Tanzania

BackgroundTanzania has experienced outbreaks of dengue fever in major cities. The main vectors of the dengue virus in Tanzania are Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. The control of this mosquito vector is based on insecticide, and yet, the insecticide susceptibility of this species is not well known in many places in Tanzania. Conversely, the breeding habitats mostly preferred by this species are not well documented in the study area. Therefore, the present study aimed to determine the pyrethroid insecticide susceptibility status and breeding habitats preference of Ae. aegypti mosquito in the three sites from three districts in Mwanza, Tanzania. The assessment of Ae. aegypti mosquito 24-h percentage mortality was based on WHO criteria.ResultsA total of 850 Ae. aegypti were exposed to three pyrethroid insecticides. In Bwiru site, 100% mortality was observed for all three pyrethroids, indicating full susceptibility. At Igekemaja and Mwagagala villages, Ae. aegypti were resistant to all the three pyrethroid insecticides tested. In Igekemaja, there were variations in Ae. aegypti mortality rates induced by different insecticides, with mortality rates ranging from 72% for alphacypermethrin to 86% for deltamethrin. Although the mortality rates were lower than in Bwiru site, they were still substantial and statistically significant. The mortality rates in Mwagagala were lowest across the three insecticides, with mortality rates ranging from 60% for deltamethrin to 86% for alphacypermethrin. In Mwagagala, the Ae. aegypti mosquitoes were less susceptible to the insecticides tested. Aedes aegypti mosquito prefer breeding in abandoned old tires in urban area and in small containers and uncovered water storage containers in rural settings.ConclusionThe study has revealed pyrethroid insecticide susceptibility status and breeding habitats of Ae. aegypti in the rural and urban settings in Mwanza, Tanzania. The study findings imply the need for public health interventions with focus on community education on mosquito control.

Development of a controlled-release mosquito RNAi yeast larvicide suitable for the sustained control of large water storage containers

Large household water storage containers are among the most productive habitats for Aedes aegypti (Linnaeus, 1762), the primary mosquito vector for dengue and other arboviral pathogens. Increasing concerns for insecticide resistance and larvicide safety are limiting the successful treatment of large household water storage containers, which are among the most productive habitats for Aedes juveniles. The recent development of species-specific RNAi-based yeast larvicides could help overcome these problems, particularly if shelf stable ready-to-use formulations with significant residual activity in water can be developed. Here we examine the hypothesis that development of a shelf-stable controlled-release RNAi yeast formulation can facilitate lasting control of A. aegypti juveniles in large water storage containers. In this study, a dried inactivated yeast was incorporated into a biodegradable matrix containing a mixture of polylactic acid, a preservative, and UV protectants. The formulation was prepared using food-grade level components to prevent toxicity to humans or other organisms. Both floating and sinking versions of the tablets were prepared for treatment of various sized water containers, including household water storage tank-sized containers. The tablets passed accelerated storage tests of shelf life stability and demonstrated up to six months residual activity in water. The yeast performed well in both small and large containers, including water barrels containing 20-1000 larvae each, and in outdoor barrel trials. Future studies will include the evaluation of the yeast larvicide in larger operational field trials that will further assess the potential for incorporating this new technology into integrated mosquito control programs worldwide.

Protecting the Safe Water Chain in Refugee Camps: An Exploratory Study of Water Handling Practices, Chlorine Decay, and Household Water Safety in South Sudan, Jordan, and Rwanda.

In refugee and internally displaced person settlements, hygienic water handling and free residual chlorine (FRC) are crucial for protecting water against recontamination after distribution up to the household point-of-consumption. We conducted a secondary analysis of water quality and water handling data collected in refugee camps in South Sudan, Jordan, and Rwanda using statistical and process-based modeling to explore how water handling practices affect FRC decay and household FRC outcomes. The two practices that consistently produced a significant effect on FRC decay and household FRC were storing water in direct sunlight and transferring water between containers during household storage. Samples stored in direct sunlight had 0.22-0.31 mg/L lower household FRC and had FRC decay rates between 2 and 3.7 times higher than samples stored in the shade, and samples that were transferred between containers had 0.031-0.51 mg/L lower household FRC and decay rates 1.65-3 times higher than non-transferred samples in sites in which the effect was significant, suggesting that humanitarian responders should aim to provide additional water storage containers to prevent water transferring in households and encourage water-users not to store water in direct sunlight. By contrast, the effect of the three recommended hygienic water handling behaviors (clean, covered containers and drawing by tap or pouring) was mixed or inconclusive. These inconclusive results were likely due to imbalanced or unreliable approaches to gathering the data, and we recommend that hygienic water handling practices that mechanistically provide a physical barrier against recontamination should always be promoted in humanitarian settings.

Assessing the ecological patterns of Aedes aegypti in areas with high arboviral risks in the large city of Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire

Background The city of Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire has increasingly faced multiple outbreaks of Aedes mosquito-borne arboviral diseases (e.g., dengue (DEN) and yellow fever (YF)) during the recent years, 2017–2024. Thus, we assessed and compared Aedes aegypti larval and adult population dynamics and Stegomyia indices in four urbanized areas with differential arboviral incidences in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire. Methods From August 2019 to July 2020, we sampled Aedes mosquito immatures (larvae and pupae), adults and breeding habitats in Anono and Gbagba with high arboviral incidences and Ayakro and Entente with low arboviral incidences in the Abidjan city, using standardized methods. Sampling was conducted in the peridomestic and domestic (indoors and outdoors) premises during short dry season (SDS), short rainy season (SRS), long dry season (LDS) and long rainy season (LRS). The abdomens and ovaries of Ae. aegypti females were examined to determine their blood-meal and parity statuses. Stegomyia indices (container index: CI, house index: HI and Breteau index: BI), blood-meal status and parity rates were compared by study sites and seasons and with the World Health Organization (WHO)-established epidemic thresholds. Results Overall, Aedes and arboviral risk indices were high and similar between the four study areas. In total, 86,796 mosquitoes were identified and dominated by Ae. aegypti species (97.14%, 84,317/86,796). The most productive larval breeding habitats were tires, discarded containers and water storage containers. CI, HI, and BI in Anono (22.4%, 33.5% and 89.5), Ayakro (23.1%, 43.8% and 91.0), Entente (15.9%, 24.8% and 48.5) and Gbagba (23.3%, 43.0% and 102.0) were high in the respective study sites. Stegomyia indices were higher than the WHO-established epidemic thresholds during any seasons for DEN, and LRS and SRS for YF. The numbers of Ae. aegypti-positive breeding sites were higher in the domestic premises (68.0%, 900/1,324) than in the peridomestic premises (32.0%, 424/1,324). In the domestic premises, Ae. aegypti-positive breeding sites (94.6%, 851/4,360) and adult individuals (93.4%, 856/916) were mostly found outdoors of houses. Aedes aegypti adult females were mostly unfed (51.3%, 203/396), followed by blood-fed (22.2%, 88/396), gravid (13.9%, 55/396) and half-gravid (12.6%, 50/396), and had parity rate of 49.7% (197/396) that was comparable between the study sites. Conclusions The city of Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire is highly infested with Ae. aegypti which showed comparable ecological patterns across study sites and seasons. Thus, the local communities are exposed to high and permanent risks of transmission of DEN and YF viruses that were above the WHO-established epidemic thresholds throughout. The results provide a baseline for future vector studies needed to further characterize the observed patterns of local Ae. aegypti abundances and behaviors, and risks of transmission of these arboviruses. Community-based larval source management of identified productive containers might reduce Ae. aegypti numbers and risks of transmission of Aedes-borne arboviruses in Abidjan, and other sub-Saharan African cities.

Jumantik Education: Strategy Toward Malaria Elimination in the Resettlement Area of Osi Island, West Seram Regency

The Covid-19 pandemic, which has been global for 3 years, tends to have a domino effect in various aspects, such as individuals, groups, and countries. One of the causes of decreased immune system in the host is due to comorbid diseases suffered by the host (patients). Those at risk of Covid-19 may also be at risk of infectious diseases caused by viruses, parasites, and bacteria. In a pandemic situation like Covid-19, health behavior change education with a risk communication approach needs to be implemented in preventing, treating, and rehabilitating environmental stages of worm infection risk in the community of Osi Island hamlet. This education aims to increase public knowledge of potential health risks and threats. Thus, they can determine appropriate steps and actions to protect themselves from these issues. The method used is education with the project-based learning model, which combines lecture, discussion, and field practice methods. The target group is high school students of PGRI Pelita Jaya Seram Western Part. The achieved results are that the JUMANTIK cadres know about malaria-free health (cognitive), can collect trash (containers) from yards (psychomotor), do not allow stagnant water (affective), can drain water storage containers inside and around the house (psychomotor), can make simple mosquito traps using recycled materials, can sleep under mosquito nets (psychomotor), can observe larvae and pupae (psychomotor). Kyewords: Jumantik education, malaria elimination, Osi Island

Differences in Predation Power between Molly Fish (Poecilia Sphenops) And Mosquito Fish (Gambusia Affinis) as Predators of Aedes Sp Mosquito Larvae

Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever (DHF) continues to be a major public health issue in Indonesia, as chemical management approaches present environmental and health hazards. This research examined the effectiveness of two fish species, Molly Fish (Poecilia sphenops) and Mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis), as biological control agents against Aedes sp. larvae in Kalimantan. The experiment employed a randomized complete block design to compare the predation rates of these fish on Aedes sp. larvae over a duration of three hours. Nine replicates were performed for each fish species, utilizing 25 larvae per trial. The research indicated that Molly Fish had a higher predation rate, consuming an average of 55.11% of larvae, in contrast to Mosquitofish at 40.88%. The Mann-Whitney U test indicated a statistically significant difference in predation capacity between the two species (p < 0.000). Both fish species had a normal data distribution; however, the variances were not uniform. The control group, devoid of predator fish, exhibited no larval mortality. The findings indicate that Molly Fish may be more efficacious in managing Aedes sp. larvae numbers, providing a sustainable and environmentally acceptable alternative to chemical control approaches. The study advocates for the incorporation of Molly Fish in community-oriented vector control initiatives, specifically in water storage containers and other stagnant water sources. Future studies should examine the long-term efficacy of these fish species and assess additional potential biological control agents for complete mosquito management techniques.

Comparison of Aedes aegypti arbovirus transmission thresholds in two communities with differing water supply infrastructure

BackgroundTo assess whether the ‘economic boom’ in the tropical seaport city of Barranquilla improved tapped water supplies to socio-economically poor neighbourhoods resulting in: (1) their reduced use for domestic water-storage in large (> 1,000-litre) custom-made cement tanks which are their principal Aedes aegypti breeding sites and (2) their pupae/person index (PPI) values to below their established 0.5–1.5 PPI arbovirus transmission-threshold value, compared to matched neighbourhoods in the: (a) pre-economic boom (2004) period in Barranquilla and (b) economically-neglected seaport city of Buenaventura.MethodsThe simple, accurate and robust water surface sweep-net/calibration factor or total count methods were used to determine the total Ae. aegypti pupae numbers in greater or less than 20-litre water-holding container types located ‘inside’ or ‘outside’ these neighbourhood premises. The women residents also participated in questionnaire-based responses about their domestic water supplies, water-storage and maintenance and mosquito life stages and disease transmission knowledge, to subsequently plan appropriate resident education programmes. Microsoft Excel 8.0 with OpenEpi was used to determine the samples sizes and the statistical values.ResultsTapped water supplies to the three poor Barranquilla neighbourhoods were dramatically increased from 2004 to 2023 resulting in their residents significantly reducing their: (a) large cement water-storage tanks from 1 per 6.9 (2004) to 1 per 31.2 (2020) premises (z = 10.5: p = 0) and (b) PPI values to 0.16, 0.19 and 0.53 (mean: 0.29: 95% CI ± 0.4) in each study neighbourhood. In contrast, tapped water supplies remained inadequate in the Buenaventura neighborhoods, thereby resulting in their continued use of many large (> 1,000-litre) water-storage containers (Barranquilla: 1 per 31.2 and Buenaventura: 1 per 1.5 premises: z = − 9.26: p = 0), with unacceptably high 0.81, 0.88 and 0.99 PPI values in each study neighbourhood (mean 0.89: 95% CI ± 0.12).ConclusionsImproved tapped water supplies resulted in reduced numbers of large custom-made stoneware water-containers, as are employed by poor residents throughout the world, as well as their Ae. aegypti PPI transmission threshold values which, together with appropriate residents’ education programmes, are also urgently to reduce to prevent/reduce Ae. aegypti transmitted human diseases globally.

Socio-ecological predictors of dengue in high incidence area of Delhi, India

Despite the amplified vector-control measures, sporadic-epidemic outbreaks of dengue incidence occurred in Delhi, intermittently. This study aimed to identify the major individual, household, and community level predictors of dengue cases in the hot-spots of Delhi. Primary survey data was collected from the selected sample of 347 households, at the South- West district of Delhi. This survey has interviewed the head of the household to collect the information of dengue incidences within last one year and household information related to socio-economic, demographic, environmental factors, such as housing pattern, density, water storage containers, drainage and garbage collection site and method, mosquito protection measures and awareness. Among 347 households, 54 households had reported dengue cases, and 69 individuals had reported dengue cases in last one year. Garbage and water collection site and methods, drainage and household type, household monthly income, indoor bamboo plants, construction site (within 500 m), presence of tertiary care hospital, were the significant predictors of dengue incidences in Delhi. In conclusion, strategic control measures and intense social interventions such as household and community awareness, promotion of healthy practices should be promoted to control the dengue incidences.

Keberadaan dan Karakteristik Habitat Larva Aedes spp. di Kelurahan Tamamaung Kota Makassar

Kelurahan Tamamaung merupakan salah satu daerah endemis Demam Berdarah Dengue (DBD) di Kota Makassar. Tujuan penelitian ini menganalisis keberadaan dan karakteristik habitat perkembangbiakan larva Aedes spp. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode deskriptif eksploratif dengan rancangan cross sectional. Populasi pada penelitian adalah kontainer buatan dan alami yang berada di dalam dan di luar 100 rumah di Kelurahan Tamamaung. Sampel diambil dengan teknik metode pengambilan contoh acak sederhana atau simple random sampling. Pengambilan larva Aedes spp., dilakukan dengan metode larva tunggal atau dengan menggunakan single larvae method. Hasil uji univariat menunjukkan jenis larva Aedes spp., yang ditemukan pada lokasi penelitian adalah Aedes aegypti sebanyak 55 (76.4%), dan A. albopictus sebanyak 17 (23,6%), dan nilai House Index (HI), Container Index (CI) dan Breteau Index (BI) di kelurahan Tamamaung berturut-turut 52% (DF=7), 27.38% (DF=6), dan 72 (DF=6) dengan kategori kepadatan tinggi. Hasil analisis bivariat menunjukkan ada hubungan yang signifikan antara jenis (p=0.025), letak (p=0.003), bahan Tempat Penampung Air (p=0.000), sumber air (p=0.000), volume air (p=0.000), dan pencahayaan (p=0.001) dengan keberadaan larva Aedes spp., di Kelurahan Tamamaung Kota Makassar. Keberadaan larva Aedes spp., pada suatu habitat berhubungan dengan jenis, letak, bahan, sumber air, volume air dan pencahayaan di dalam Tempat Penampungan Air. Hasil penelitian ini diharapkan dapat memberi data baru bagi puskesmas dalam memberikan informasi lebih intensif pada masyarakat agar supaya masyarakat mengetahui keberadaan dan karakteristik tempat perindukan nyamuk A. aegypti terutama pada wadah-wadah yang dapat menampung air baik di dalam maupun di luar rumah sehingga tidak berpotensi menjadi tempat bertelur nyamuk A. aegypti dan densitas nyamuk A. aegypti dapat berkurang.

The nexus between household water insecurity, mother's handwashing practices, and diarrheal diseases among under-five children.

This study aimed to examine the association between household water insecurity (HWIS), mother's handwashing practices, and childhood diarrhea in the peri-urban and informal settlements of Hosanna town. A community-based cross-sectional study involving 424 mothers was carried out in Hosanna town, and the data were collected using a pretested structured questionnaire, HWISE Scale, and an observational checklist. Bivariate and multivariable logistic regression models were used to analyze the data. The study revealed that the prevalence of HWIS and diarrhea among under-five children was 68.6% and 16%, respectively. Only 42.2% of the mothers had good handwashing practices. Good knowledge of handwashing, positive attitudes toward handwashing, household water security (HWS), and the presence of handwashing facilities were significantly associated with good handwashing practices. Children aged 6-11 months, HWIS, uncovered and wide-mouthed water storage containers, unsafe child's stool disposal practices, and hands not washed with soap after defecation, before preparing food, and feeding a child were significantly associated with the occurrence of diarrhea. The prevalence of diarrhea and HWIS was very high. The majority of the mothers had poor handwashing practices. Therefore, findings suggest interventions to improve HWS and mother's handwashing practices, which could reduce the risk of diarrheal diseases.

Entomological surveys and insecticide susceptibility profile of Aedes aegypti during the dengue outbreak in Sao Tome and Principe in 2022.

The first dengue outbreak in Sao Tome and Principe was reported in 2022. Entomological investigations were undertaken to establish the typology of Aedes larval habitats, the distribution of Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus, the related entomological risk and the susceptibility profile of Ae. aegypti to insecticides, to provide evidence to inform the outbreak response. Entomological surveys were performed in all seven health districts of Sao Tome and Principe during the dry and rainy seasons in 2022. WHO tube and synergist assays using piperonyl butoxide (PBO) and diethyl maleate (DEM) were carried out, together with genotyping of F1534C/V1016I/V410L mutations in Ae. aegypti. Aedes aegypti and Ae. albopictus were found in all seven health districts of the country with high abundance of Ae. aegypti in the most urbanised district, Agua Grande. Both Aedes species bred mainly in used tyres, discarded tanks and water storage containers. In both survey periods, the Breteau (BI > 50), house (HI > 35%) and container (CI > 20%) indices were higher than the thresholds established by WHO to indicate high potential risk of dengue transmission. The Ae. aegypti sampled were susceptible to all insecticides tested except dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) (9.2% mortality, resistant), bendiocarb (61.4% mortality, resistant) and alpha-cypermethrin (97% mortality, probable resistant). A full recovery was observed in Ae. aegypti resistant to bendiocarb after pre-exposure to synergist PBO. Only one Ae. aegypti specimen was found carrying F1534C mutation. These findings revealed a high potential risk for dengue transmission throughout the year, with the bulk of larval breeding occurring in used tyres, water storage and discarded containers. Most of the insecticides tested remain effective to control Aedes vectors in Sao Tome, except DDT and bendiocarb. These data underline the importance of raising community awareness and implementing routine dengue vector control strategies to prevent further outbreaks in Sao Tome and Principe, and elsewhere in the subregion.

Quality Control of Tap Water and Factors Determining Bacterial Contamination of Households’ Stored Drinking Water in the Town of Aboisso (Côte d’Ivoire)

Piped water must inspire consumer confidence in health and organoleptic terms. In the event of a food poisoning, consumers who have a poor perception of its quality may incriminate it, without taking into consideration that the fact of passing it through a drinking water storage container before consuming it can also cause contamination. The present study carried out in the town of Aboisso aimed to assess the role of water storage in the deterioration of microbiological quality of drinking water, and to identify the predictive factors of the presence of bacteria in stored water. To do this, physicochemical parameters (temperature, pH, conductivity, turbidity and free chlorine) and microbiological parameters (total coliforms, thermotolerant coliforms and <i>E. coli</i>) were measured on water samples taken from taps and storage containers in 94 households. The storage conditions of drinking water were also the subject of a brief household survey. The identification of predictive factors for the presence of total coliforms and <i>E. coli</i> in stored water was done using bivariate analysis and multivariate analysis by binary logistic regression through two models. The first model included the use of a transport container and the storage conditions as independent variables. The second included besides that the values of turbidity and free chlorine. As results, the waters were weakly mineralized and acidic. Free chlorine levels, temperature values, and bacterial loads in tap water were significantly (p < 0.05) higher than those in stored water. While 13.83% of samples taken at the taps were contaminated with total coliforms and 1.06% with <i>E. coli</i>, 50% and 18.09% of those taken in containers were contaminated with total coliforms and <i>E. coli</i>, respectively. In the first model, only the storage duration and the method used to draw water from storage container were statistically associated with the presence of total coliforms while no variable was statistically associated with the presence of <i>E. coli</i>. In the second model, the drawing method and the free chlorine level were significantly associated with the presence of total coliforms while only the free chlorine level was associated with <i>E. coli</i>. These results motivate the need to raise awareness and train populations in drinking water hygiene.

Occurrence and Mitigation of Bacterial Regrowth in Stored Household Water in Eastern Coastal Madagascar

In communities where people lack on-demand, safely managed drinking water, stored household water often becomes contaminated by fecal bacteria, regardless of the source-water quality. The objectives of this paper are to assess and control bacterial contamination in stored household water in Toamasina, a rapidly urbanizing city in eastern coastal Madagascar. We collected samples of source water and stored household water from 10 representative households that use different water sources and different storage strategies, and we analyzed the samples for several fecal indicator bacteria. We also tested three methods that residents of Toamasina could realistically employ for cleaning their household water storage vessels, assessing the effect of the cleaning methods on measured bacterial levels in the water. Consistent with the previous literature, we found that concentrations of total coliforms in stored household water were significantly higher than in the corresponding source water (p < 0.05). In 100% of households that stored their water in 20 L polyethylene jerrycans (n = 4), biofilms on the walls of the jerrycan harbored total coliforms and Enterococcus. The use of a closed storage container was, on its own, not found to provide a meaningful protective effect against bacterial regrowth; to be protective, closed storage containers must be combined with high-quality source water and/or with adequate cleaning to prevent biofilm formation. A dilute solution of sodium hypochlorite, known locally as Sûr’Eau or Manadio Rano, was both the most effective and the least expensive method for cleaning household water storage containers. We conclude that regular and effective cleaning of storage containers is an essential component of safe water storage. Because household storage of collected water is common in many low- and middle-income countries, these results are important towards the worldwide achievement of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goal 6.

Creativity Through Kendi Creation

Kendi is a traditional tool that has existed in Indonesia since 2000 BC. Hence, it is essential to preserve Kendi in order to maintain the craft’s rich history and culture in Indonesia. Currently, kendi preservation is particularly carried out by art students. In its preservation, creativity plays a crucial role when developing ideas for creating kendi made by art students. This study examined the role of student imagination in the development of a kendi craft. This study is qualitative research. The findings revealed that the Kendis monotonous shape can be developed into a variety of shapes, resulting in a unique shape and improving its novelty value. Even though the kendi’s shape has altered, it can still be utilized as a water storage container. Kendi can be used to stimulate students’ imaginations into making a piece of art since numerous types of creative and innovative kendi are generated through this imagination. Keywords: art education, jug, imagination, art work

Correlation between volume weight, porosity and moisture content in Central Kalimantan’s Peatlands

Peat is determined by soil characteristics consisting of maturity, color, low PD, low BD, texture, and organic content, which are different from mineral soil types, which can store more water with relatively high porosity, can decrease if drought due to lack of peat wetting with fiber spaces blackish brown with a fine structure. The purpose of this study was to determine the physical and chemical properties of peat as a water storage container and to determine the correlation between volume weight, porosity, and water content. The method used is a descriptive method, Sieve analysis, using ring samples and eagle auger camp. Laboratory results show that the BD value is small, the PD value is small, the water content value is high, the peat has maturity levels of Sapric and Hemic, and the texture consists of coarse sand, medium sand, and fine sand > of dust, no silt or clay, has a relative ash content low, high organic matter. The correlation is that when the BD and PD values are low, high water content means high porosity, large water storage, drought easily during the dry season, so fires easily occur.

The Relationship between the Wash, Morbidity, and Childhood Undernutrition among the Wogo, an Island Community in Western Niger

In Niger, diseases linked to poor WASH (Water, Sanitation, Hygiene) practices are one of the main causes of morbidity and mortality among children under five.
 This study aimed to evaluate the relationship between WASH and morbidity and the nutritional status of children aged 0 to 59 months in the rural island commune of Wogo de Sinder, located in the Tillabéry region in the West. of Niger.
 This cross-sectional descriptive study involved a representative and random sample of mothers of children aged 0 to 59 months. A questionnaire was completed through a structured interview. The data were collected with ODK software and then analysed with SPSS and Epi Info version 7.2.
 A total of 250 mothers were enrolled. The study shows that most mothers surveyed used surface water (90%) for drinking water, while 10% used groundwater. Around 49.2% of mothers said that their home is on the banks of the river, compared to 36.8% who lived less than 30 minutes away. Their main water storage containers are jars and buckets, with 42.4% and 36.6%, respectively. Among the respondents, 40.4% did not practice any water treatment, 53.2% filtered the water with a cloth, and 6.4% treated the water with bleach. Only 21.6% of mothers washed their hands with soap after using the toilet or feeding the infant. About 72% of households did not have a latrine. Wasting, underweight and stunted growth affected 31.2%, 41.6%, and 43.2% of children whose mothers did not wash their hands with soap. Morbidity affected 35.2% of children whose mothers used surface water for drinking water.
 WASH knowledge and practices remain inadequate in the rural commune of Sinder and negatively affect the nutritional and health status of children under 5.

Seasonal Variations in Household Water Use, Microbiological Water Quality, and Challenges to the Provision of Adequate Drinking Water: A Case of Peri-urban and Informal Settlements of Hosanna Town, Southern Ethiopia.

Several studies have been conducted on household water use and microbial water quality globally. However, studies that considered seasonal variability of household water use and microbial water quality were limited. Therefore, this study investigated the seasonal variability of household water use, microbiological water quality, and challenges to the provision of adequate water in the peri-urban and informal settlements of Hosanna town, Southern Ethiopia. A longitudinal study was conducted on 288 households. The data was gathered using a pretested structured questionnaire, laboratory-analysis, interviews, storage-container inventories, focus group discussions, key-informant interviews, and an observational checklist. The data was analyzed using stepwise-multiple linear regression, bivariate and multivariable logistic regression, thematic-analysis, t-tests, and non-parametric-tests. Households were visited for 7 consecutive days during the dry and rainy seasons to account for changes in daily and seasonal variation of water use. 440 stored water and 12 source samples were analyzed for E. coli presence during dry and rainy seasons. The prevalence of stored water contamination with E. coli was 43.2% and 34.5% during the dry and rainy seasons, respectively. The per capita water consumption was 19.4 and 20.3 l during the dry and rainy seasons, respectively. Piped water on-premises, small family size, volume, and number of water storage containers were significant predictors of per capita water consumption in both seasons. Piped water off-premises, storing water for more than 3 days, uncovered, and wide-mouthed water storage containers were significantly associated with the presence of E. coli in water in both seasons. Seasonal variability of household water use and microbiological water quality was statistically significant, which is a significant public health concern and needs intervention to enhance water quantity and quality to mitigate the risk of waterborne diseases. Findings also suggest seasonal monitoring of the safety of drinking water to ensure that the water is safe and healthy.

DETERMINATION OF THE MAIN MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASSIC GEOMETRIC CONTAINERS WITH HOMOGENEOUS FILLERS

An urgent issue in many branches of the modern economy is the possibility of various uses of large-volume containers of various manufacturing geometries for the purpose of storage, transportation and use of various types of technical liquids, water, etc. The most common geometry for the manufacture of such containers is cylindrical, hemispherical, parabolic tanks. In most cases, the spatial arrangement of such containers during their direct use has a vertical orientation. But as the review and trends of modern uses of such cylindrical structures show, there is a trend towards their horizontal or combined location methods during practical operation. The volume of the filler in the conditions of constant use of such containers is also constantly changing, and therefore the main energy characteristics of the filler materials themselves change accordingly, to which we can attribute the actual volume of the liquid, the set of static moments, as a result, the coordinates of the center of gravity, moments of inertia relative to certain coordinate axes, planes, etc. The issue of changing certain geometric characteristics when changing the location of such cylindrical containers from horizontal to vertical or vice versa can be interesting and relevant. A significant number of sectors of the economy show interest in plastic horizontal containers for water storage, and this is understandable, because the ease of use and variety of products attract an increasing number of consumers. Plastic types of cylindrical containers have been gaining popularity in various industries for a long time due to their useful features. Innovative technologies and materials have made it possible to create plastic products of various shapes, sizes and purposes, and this has many obvious advantages. The use of plastic materials in the manufacture of various containers allows to significantly reduce the initial weight of such a product in comparison with its metal counterparts or glass products, which means that when establishing the main energy characteristics, the weight of the container itself can be neglected. In addition, the use of this type of container is convenient for its transportation, installation, etc.

A Time Domain Nonlinear Fluid–Structure–Soil Interaction Analysis of Rectangular Water Storage Tanks Using Coupled Eulerian–Lagrangian (CEL) Formulation and Direct Method

ABSTRACT Generally, soil–structure interaction (SSI) effects significantly impact the dynamic behavior of fluid storage containers. Hence, ignoring the SSI may result in unrealistic fallouts. This research employs fully coupled numerical modeling to examine this effect on the dynamic behavior of rectangular incompletely filled rigid water storage containers under earthquake excitation. The tanks’ performance is analysed using the coupled Eulerian–Lagrangian (CEL) technique of the Finite Element Method (FEM). The fluid–structure interaction (FSI) behavior of the tanks is studied using the CEL approach, which is formulated in a nonlinear wave theory. The direct procedure using the infinite element is exerted to model soil field, reflect the effects of base flexibility on the tanks’ performance, and investigate SSI influences on tanks’ seismic performance. The impact of base flexibility on the system’s dynamic behavior is studied by paralleling the outcomes of six soil media. The conclusions are provided as surface sloshing heights and the development of maximum compressive stresses obtained from six earthquake excitations for the two aspect ratios and various base statuses. The sloshing response seems to be linked to the tank’s geometrical parameters and earthquake characteristics and is practically independent of differences in the base type. From these analyses, it may be concluded that the SSI influences on impulsive response are dissimilar in broad and tall structures because of the ability of shallow tanks to dissipate more energy through radiation damping rather than tall tanks. Moreover, for the case of medium containers, notable attention would be required to be dedicated to the design of flexible foundations expected to experience near-field earthquake shakings.

First Report of Rubber Collection Bowls & Plastic and Bamboo Water Containers as the Major Breeding Source of Ae. albopictus with the Indigenous Transmission of Dengue and Chikungunya in Rural Forested Malaria-Endemic Villages of Dhalai District, Tripura, India: The Importance of Molecular Identification.

With the reports of indigenous cases of dengue and chikungunya in the forest-covered rural tribal malaria-endemic villages of Dhalai District, Tripura, India, an exploratory study was undertaken to identify the vector breeding sites. From June 2021 to August 2022, mosquito larvae were collected from both natural and artificial sources in the villages, house premises, and their nearby forested areas outside of the houses. Other than morphological characterisation, Aedes species were confirmed by polymerase chain reaction targeting both nuclear (ITS2) and mitochondrial genes (COI) followed by bidirectional Sanger sequencing. Aedes albopictus was abundantly found in this area in both natural and artificial containers, whereas Ae. aegypti was absent. Among the breeding sources of molecularly confirmed Ae. albopictus species, rubber collection bowls were found to be a breeding source reported for the first time. Plastic and indigenously made bamboo-polythene containers for storing supply water and harvesting rainwater in the villages with a shortage of water were found to be other major breeding sources, which calls for specific vector control strategies. Natural sources like ponds and rainwater collected on Tectona grandis leaves and Colocasia axil were also found to harbour the breeding, along with other commonly found sources like bamboo stumps and tree holes. No artificial containers as a breeding source were found inside the houses. Mixed breeding was observed in many containers with other Aedes and other mosquito species, necessitating molecular identification. We report six haplotypes in this study, among which two are reported for the first time. However, Aedes aegypti was not found in the area. Additionally, rubber collection bowls, ponds, and water containers also showed the presence of Culex quinquefasciatus and Culex vishnui, known JE vectors from this area, and reported JE cases as well. Different Anopheles vector spp. from this known malaria-endemic area were also found, corroborating this area as a hotbed of several vectors and vector-borne diseases. This study, for the first time, reports the breeding sources of Aedes albopictus in the forested areas of Tripura, with rubber collection bowls and large water storage containers as major sources. Also, for the first time, this study reports the molecular characterisation of the Ae. albopictus species of Tripura, elucidating the limitations of morphological identification and highlighting the importance of molecular studies for designing appropriate vector control strategies. The study also reports the co-breeding of JE and malaria vectors for the first time in the area reporting these vector-borne diseases.