Waters Off Research Articles

Generating Offshore Wind Careers

Abstract In than three years, 94 offshore wind turbines will stand in waters off New York. Servicing the machines will be a small army of workers who will likely find, train, and apply for their jobs all between now and when these turbines are operational.

Sea Ice Melting Drives Substantial Change in Dissolved Organic Matter in Surface Water off Prydz Bay, East Antarctic

AbstractPolar ecosystems are vulnerable to climate warming and are characterized by a rapid decline in sea ice. In this study, we collected surface water samples from the Southern Ocean off Prydz Bay during and after sea ice melting season (SIM). After removing the particles using 0.7‐μm pore size filters, we measured the concentration of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and the composition of dissolved organic matter (DOM) by using the total organic carbon analyzer, optical spectrometry, and high‐resolution mass spectrometry. The mean DOC concentration during the SIM is 1.3‐fold higher than that during the post‐SIM, whereas the a350 value, an indicator of chromophoric DOM, showed the opposite trend by a factor of 2.8. Five components, including three humic‐like and two protein‐like substances were identified by fluorescence excitation emission matrices‐parallel factor analysis, in which protein‐like biolabile components were enriched during the SIM and humic‐like refractory components were enriched during the post‐SIM. The DOM in the water samples from the SIM had higher proportions of polycyclic aromatics, polyphenols, and compounds within molecular lability boundary, whereas the DOM from the post‐SIM had a higher proportion of highly unsaturated compounds. Statistical analysis revealed significant correlations between DOM and sea‐ice melting/associated environmental factors (e.g., water temperature, salinity, and microbial activity). These collective results suggest that sea ice melting is an important factor driving a transition from more labile to more refractory DOM in the surface water off Prydz Bay, which may have a profound impact on the marine ecosystem and carbon cycle in the polar ocean.

Chilean blue whales off Isla Grande de Chiloe, 2004-2010: distribution, site-fidelity and behaviour

A collaborative research program (the Alfaguara Project) has collected information on Chilean blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus) off Isla Grande de Chiloe, in southern Chile, through eight aerial and 85 marine surveys. A total of 363 individual blue whales was photo-identified from 2004 to 2010. Approximately 20% of all catalogued individuals were resighted within the same season and 31% were resighted between years. Recaptures of photo-identified individuals from other areas to the north and south of the main study area support the hypothesis that the feeding ground off southern Chile is extensive and dynamic. The high overall annual return and sighting rates highlight the waters off northwestern Isla de Chiloe and northern Los Lagos as the most important aggregation areas currently known for this species in Chile and one of the largest in the Southern Hemisphere. Observations on feeding and social behaviour also were recorded. These results provide important information on the conservation status of Chilean blue whales and highlight the necessity that long-term photographic identification research and line-transect surveys to monitor health conditions and population trends be continued off northwestern Isla de Chiloe. The high frequency of large vessels in the mouth of the Chacao Channel (along the north side of Isla de Chiloe) and the high number of blue whales in the area raises the possibility of vessel collisions. Therefore, it is necessary to develop and implement a conservation plan for these whales to address this and other potential threats.

Bycatch of the Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops aduncus) in gillnet fisheries off Amakusa-Shimoshima Island, Japan

A year-round resident population of the Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops aduncus) inhabits the waters off Amakusa-Shimoshima Island (32°25′N, 130°05´E), in Japan. The effect of bycatch in gillnet fisheries on the Amakusa population was examined. Population size in 2007 and 2008 was estimated at 230 individuals (CV = 2.5%) and 216 individuals (CV = 2.1%), respectively, based on a mark-recapture technique. The magnitude of bycatch was evaluated by analysing interview surveys (263 gillnetters) during these two years. Minimum numbers of dolphin bycatch were 12 individuals in 2007 and 14 individuals in 2008. Most of the dolphins, which were captured by bottom-set gillnets, were considered to be Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins for the following reasons: (1) two individuals were identified based on DNA analysis; (2) only Tursiops sp. and finless porpoises were found in the sighting survey by ferry boats, and fishermen can distinguish between the two; and (3) the seasonal and spatial distribution of bycatch corresponded well to habitat use patterns of the Amakusa population. If the US potential biological removal (PBR) approach is used it estimates two individuals per year, which is much lower than the minimum bycatch numbers of 12–14 individuals per year (5.2–6.5% of abundance estimates). Reducing bycatch mortality caused by bottom-set gillnets is essential for the effective conservation of Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins in Amakusa, Japan.

Length-weight relationship and well-being factors of 33 fish species caught by gillnets from the Egyptian Mediterranean waters off Alexandria

This study investigates the growth pattern of 33 fish species caught by gillnets from the Egyptian Mediterranean waters off Alexandria between 2018 and 2020. This is accomplished by studying the length-weight relationship (LWR), Fulton’s condition factor (kc), the allometric condition factor (ka), and the relative weight condition factor (kn). The b-values of the length-weight relationship of the studied species varied between 2.1382 and 3.6868 according to the results. Only Dentex macrophthalmus (b = 2.1382), Etrumeus golanii (b = 2.4197), and Trichiurus lepturus (b = 3.6868) exhibited different values than the expected range of 2.5 < b less than 3.5. The 95 % confidence interval (CI) and Bailey’s t-test of b-values were tested. In terms of growth pattern, the results showed 20 fish species with an isometric growth pattern, 10 fish species with negative allometric growth, and only 3 fish species with positive allometric growth. The study of Fulton’s condition factor (kc) assessed the differences between species to the differences in fish shape, and proposed that each fish family has its own range depending on the fish shape, and (kc > 1) is not necessarily a better condition for the fish. The study of the allometric condition factor (ka) assessed that the difference between ka and kc values influenced by the feeding intensity and the b-value. The values of the relative weight condition factor (kn) were within the range from 0.929 to 1.038, and 24 fish species reflected a good growth condition while the kn values for the remaining 9 species were less than 1.0. The obtained results add new data about specific species and provide updated data on the remaining species in the area of study. The obtained results can have useful effects on the stock assessment of fish species.

Post-fledging distribution of ’ua’u (Hawaiian petrel Pterodroma sandwichensis) from Kaua’i, Hawai’i and effectiveness of rehabilitation

The ‘ua’u (Hawaiian petrel Pterodroma sandwichensis) is an Endangered seabird endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. The at-sea distribution of this species is an under-studied aspect of its ecology. We tracked 10 petrels fledging from the island of Kaua’i to their first wintering grounds, an area which has not previously been described. We also compare birds fledging naturally from their burrows with birds that were grounded by light attraction, rehabilitated, and released. All fledglings travelled over 2000 km southwest after leaving Kaua’i until they reached the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone and the frontal zone that separates the westward-flowing North Equatorial Current from the eastward-flowing North Equatorial Counter Current. At this point, birds still transmitting turned west, passing through Micronesia before eventually reaching the Philippines. Three birds entered the Lagonoy Gulf in the Philippines, 2 birds briefly entered the South China Sea and the waters off Taiwan, and 1 bird flew up to Japan before returning to the waters off the Philippines. The core use area within the wintering ground was characterized by higher temperatures, lower sea level anomaly, and higher chlorophyll a concentrations. While wild fledglings transmitted longer than rehabilitated birds, this was only weakly significant, and the fact that several rehabilitated birds made it to their first wintering grounds highlights the importance of rescue and rehabilitation efforts. The potential threats to birds over-wintering in this area include concentrated fishing activity in the Lagonoy Gulf, nocturnal squid fishing vessels across the region, marine pollution, and the impacts of climate change to the region’s marine environment.

Ontogenetic and seasonal shifts in diets of sharptail mola Masturus lanceolatus in waters off Taiwan

Sharptail mola Masturus lanceolatus share a circumglobal distribution with ocean sunfish Mola mola and are typically regarded as gelatinous plankton feeders. Both species are frequently captured as bycatch in the same areas, but sharptail mola are often targeted and heavily harvested in certain regions. However, the diet of sharptail mola remains poorly described. We examined the foraging habits and trophic dynamics of sharptail mola from waters off eastern Taiwan using stomach content analysis (SCA; n = 162), bulk tissue stable isotope analysis (SIA; n = 213), and compound-specific isotope analysis of amino acids (CSIA-AA; n = 10). Results demonstrated that sharptail mola mainly consumed tunicates, with lower dietary proportions of diverse prey from epi- and mesopelagic, coastal, and benthic habitats. The diet of sharptail mola changed significantly with size; small mola (&lt;80 cm) had lower δ15N and δ13C values and fed on more pteropods and Salpidae, while large mola (&gt;80 cm) fed on more Pyrosoma spp., cephalopods, and benthic organisms living on sandy substrates, with larger individuals having correspondingly higher isotope values and trophic positions. Diet compositions and δ13C values also showed seasonal variations across body size, suggesting that sharptail mola might undergo seasonal migrations with changing availability of food resources. The results provide insights into the trophic dynamics of sharptail mola and suggest that their foraging behavior varies across life-history stages and seasons.

Distribution and Species Composition of Phytoplankton Community in the Coastal Water Off Porbandar - North-Eastern Arabian Sea During Winter Season

Distribution and Species Composition of Phytoplankton Community in the Coastal Water Off Porbandar - North-Eastern Arabian Sea During Winter Season

The spring ichthyoplankton of pacific water off northern Kuril Islands

The aim of the work is assesment of the species composition and spatial distribution of spring ichthyoplankton in area off northern Kuril Islands.Material and methods. It is based on the data of ichthyoplankton sampling in 2011, 2015 and 2016 yrs, trawl surveys in 2011 and 2015, and hydrological surveys in 2015 and 2016 yrs. Maps of the fish distribution at various stages of ontogenesis were made. Cluster analysis was used to identify the structure of ichthyoplankton in the 2015 collections.Novelty. For the first time, data on ichthyoplankton collected by the SakhNIRO in the 2010s near the northern Kuril Islands are presented. The ichthyoplankton complexes of the spring 2015 are identified and their spatial location is shown.Results. Eggs and larvae of 26 fish species were identified in ichthyoplankton collection, 86 species of teleosts were noted in trawl catches. The dominant components of ichthyoplankton were the walleye pollock eggs Gadus chalcogrammus, the larvae of the Pacific sand lance Ammodytes hexapterus and the larvae of sculpins gen. Gymnocanthus. Most species abundant in ichthyoplankton were among the most significant in trawl catches. The maximum abundance of ichthyoplankton, more than 600 ind./m2, in the area of the Northern Kuril occurred at the beginning of May. The structure of ichthyoplankton in April-May of 2015–2016 was quite similar, at the level of 60–70%.Practical significance. Knowledge of the main spawning areas of commercial fish and the places of development of their early stages is an important component for making decisions on the rational use of biological resources.

Primary production by phytoplankton in the territorial seas of the Republic of Korea

The primary production (PP) by phytoplankton in marine ecosystems is essential for carbon cycling and fueling food webs. Hence, estimating the PP in the territorial sea of each country is a necessary step to achieving carbon neutrality. To estimate the PP in the territorial sea of the Republic of Korea from 2005 to 2021, we analyzed various physiochemical parameters, such as sea surface temperature (SST), Secchi depth, and concentrations of chlorophyll-a and nutrients in the seas of five regions, including the East Sea, West Sea, western South Sea, eastern South Sea, and the waters off Jeju Island. During the 17-year study period, the SST tended to increase, while the nutrient concentrations declined, except in the Jeju area. Overall, the PP did not show a specific temporal trend, but daily PP in the western South Sea was the highest among the five regions. Moreover, the maximum PP in the Korean territorial waters (76,450 km2 ) was estimated at 11,227 Gg C y-1, which accounts for 0.03% of the global PP. The results may give insights into a better understanding of the PP, further resource utilization, and environmental sustainability in the studied region.

Anxiolytic reversal of classically conditioned / chronic stress-induced gene expression and learning in the Stress Alternatives Model

Social decision-making is critically influenced by neurocircuitries that regulate stress responsiveness. Adaptive choices, therefore, are altered by stress-related neuromodulatory peptide systems, such as corticotropin releasing factor (CRF). Experimental designs that take advantage of ecologically salient fear-inducing stimuli allow for revelation of neural mechanisms that regulate the balance between pro- and anti-stress responsiveness. To accomplish this, we developed a social stress and conditioning protocol, the Stress Alternatives Model (SAM), that utilizes a simple dichotomous choice, and produces distinctive behavioral phenotypes (Escape or Stay). The experiments involve repeated social aggression, a potent unconditioned stimulus (US), from a novel larger conspecific (a 3X larger Rainbow trout). Prior to the social interaction, the smaller test fish is presented with an auditory conditioning stimulus (water off = CS). During the social aggression, an escape route is available, but is only large enough for the smaller test animal. Surprisingly, although the new aggressor provides vigorous attacks each day, only 50% of the test fish choose Escape. Stay fish, treated with the CRF1 antagonist antalarmin, a potent anxiolytic drug, on day 4, promotes Escape behavior for the last 4 days of the SAM protocol. The results suggest that the decision to Escape, required a reduction in stress reactivity. The Stay fish that chose Escape following anxiolytic treatment, learned how to use the escape route prior to stress reduction, as the Escape latency in these fish was significantly faster than first time escapers. In Escape fish, the use of the escape route is learned over several days, reducing the Escape latency over time in the SAM. Fear conditioning (water off + aggression) resulted in elevated hippocampal (DL) Bdnf mRNA levels, with coincident reduction in the AMPA receptor subunit Glua1 expression, a result that is reversed following a one-time treatment (during SAM aggression on day 4) with the anxiolytic CRF1 receptor antagonist antalarmin.

Hepatitis E Virus Infections in Free-Ranging and Captive Cetaceans, Spain, 2011-2022.

Epidemiologic surveillance of hepatitis E virus in over 300 free-ranging and captive cetaceans in waters off Spain revealed extensive exposure to this pathogen. We suggest the persistent and widespread presence of hepatitis E in the marine environment off the coast of Spain may be driven by terrestrial sources of contamination.

Spatial Distribution of Phytoplankton in the Coastal Waters off Russkii Island (Peter the Great Bay, Sea of Japan)

Spatial Distribution of Phytoplankton in the Coastal Waters off Russkii Island (Peter the Great Bay, Sea of Japan)

Turbulent Thermal-Wind-Driven Coastal Upwelling: Current Observations and Dynamics

Abstract A remarkably consistent Lagrangian upwelling circulation at monthly and longer time scales is observed in a 17-yr time series of current profiles in 12 m of water on the southern New England inner shelf. The upwelling circulation is strongest in summer, with a current magnitude of ∼1 cm s−1, which flushes the inner shelf in ∼2.5 days. The average winter upwelling circulation is about one-half of the average summer upwelling circulation, but with larger month-to-month variations driven, in part, by cross-shelf wind stresses. The persistent upwelling circulation is not wind-driven; it is driven by a cross-shelf buoyancy force associated with less-dense water near the coast. The cross-shelf density gradient is primarily due to temperature in summer, when strong surface heating warms shallower nearshore water more than deeper offshore water, and to salinity in winter, caused by fresher water near the coast. In the absence of turbulent stresses, the cross-shelf density gradient would be in a geostrophic, thermal-wind balance with the vertical shear in the along-shelf current. However, turbulent stresses over the inner shelf attributable to strong tidal currents and wind stress cause a partial breakdown of the thermal-wind balance that releases the buoyancy force, which drives the observed upwelling circulation. The presence of a cross-shelf density gradient has a profound impact on exchange across this inner shelf. Many inner shelves are characterized by turbulent stresses and cross-shelf density gradients with lighter water near the coast, suggesting turbulent thermal-wind-driven coastal upwelling may be a broadly important cross-shelf exchange mechanism. Significance Statement A remarkably consistent upwelling circulation at monthly time scales is observed in a 17-yr time series of current profiles in shallow water off southern New England. This is not the traditional wind-driven coastal upwelling; instead, it is forced by cross-shelf buoyancy (density) gradients, released by turbulent stresses in shallow water. The persistent upwelling circulation is strongest in summer, when wind and wave forcing are weak, and flushes the inner portion of the continental shelf in a few days. Consequently, this buoyancy-driven coastal upwelling is important for cooling the inner shelf and provides a reliable mechanism for cross-shelf exchange. Many inner shelves are characterized by cross-shelf density gradients and turbulent stresses, suggesting this may be a broadly important cross-shelf exchange mechanism.

An Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin (Sousa chinensis) severely injured by vessel collision: live rescue at sea, clinical care, and postmortem examination using a virtopsy-integrated approach

BackgroundVessel collision induces blunt and sharp force traumas to aquatic animals and is a leading anthropogenic impact affecting cetaceans worldwide. Vessel collision is an important threat affecting vulnerable coastal cetaceans such as the Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins (Sousa chinensis) which reside in coastal waters of Hong Kong amongst heavy marine traffic.Case presentationA severely injured subadult S. chinensis was sighted in the waters off southwestern Hong Kong with four gaping incision wounds on its dorsum. It was in poor body condition and seemed unable to use the fluke effectively. The deepest wound located at the caudal peduncle near the base of the fluke and exposed the underlying fractured caudal vertebrae. The dolphin was monitored in the field over three weeks and eventually captured for medical intervention as veterinary assessment indicated progressive and life-threatening deterioration. During rehabilitation, the dolphin demonstrated initial signs of improvement over the first 36 hours as supported by diagnostic tests but then deteriorated rapidly. It was humanely euthanised after three days of rehabilitation. Postmortem investigation was carried out using virtopsy (postmortem computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging) and conventional necropsy, with special attention to the traumatic musculoskeletal injuries caused by vessel collision and also revealed acute gastrointestinal compromise and respiratory disease that further hampered the rehabilitation.ConclusionIn cetaceans, the prognosis for recovery from injuries caused by vessel collision depends on the extent, location, and gravity of the injuries (i.e., superficial, deep, penetrating, blunt vs. sharp, fresh vs. septic), as well as the health status of the individual and its ability to respond to the insult. Injuries extending deep into the vertebral column may lead to delayed death and associated welfare issues. The prognosis of this case was likely poor given the severity and location of the injuries, but the attempted rehabilitation and postmortem investigation provided valuable insights for clinical management if similar cases are encountered in the future. Being able to non-invasively assess and document traumatic injuries and other pathologies, diagnostic imaging is particularly useful in the clinical assessment and postmortem investigation (virtopsy) of cases with vessel-induced injuries.

On the Legal Regime of Waters Off the Disputed Territories in the Eastern Mediterranean

Abstract This paper analyses how the legal status of the disputed territories of Northern Cyprus and the Gaza Strip affects the legal regime of waters off their coasts. For both situations, the analysis focuses on the following fundamental issues: the legal regime of maritime disputed territories; the maritime delimitation disputes between each disputed territory and States with opposite or adjacent coasts; and the legal regime of natural resources of the waters off the coasts of a disputed territory. In particular, the legal opinions expressed by Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus and the State of Palestine are scrutinized, offering an assessment in the light of the relevant rules of the law of the sea and other pertinent rules of international law.

Surface copepod assemblages in shallow coastal waters off northeastern Yucatan Peninsula influenced by the Yucatan upwelling

The seasonal variability of the Yucatan upwelling is known to exert a definite influence on environmental and biological conditions over the Yucatan Shelf. The present study is the first to analyze the variability of surface mesoplanktonic copepods in coastal waters off northeastern Yucatan Peninsula. Copepod samples and environmental parameters were obtained monthly in surface waters (∼1 m depth) at twelve sampling sites (<20 m depth). The sampling period included the upwelling season (April–September: Up) and representative months of non-upwelling (November–December: NUp). Differences in copepod assemblage attributes (abundance, species composition and diversity) and environmental parameters were analyzed among sampling sites, months, and seasons. Forty-two copepod species were recorded. Paracalanus quasimodo, a coastal euryhaline species, was widely dominant throughout the study period (relative abundance: 54%, frequency of occurrence: 94%). Univariate and multivariate statistical analyses indicated that copepod assemblages and environmental parameters remained spatially homogeneous but varied significantly over time. Two copepod assemblages were found concerning temporal changes in dominant species, its numerical and relative abundance, diversity and contrasting assemblage–environment​ relationships. The first assemblage occurred in the Up season, with a clear dominance of P. quasimodo (known as a coastal upwelling indicator species), high total copepod abundance, low diversity, and evenness, and positively influenced by high dissolved inorganic nutrients and chlorophyl-a concentrations. The second assemblage, present in the NUp season, also showed a dominance of P. quasimodo but with reduced relative abundance and increased of indicator species of oligotrophic waters, such as Clausocalanus furcatus and Farranula gracilis, low total copepod abundance, high diversity, and evenness, and positively influenced by salinity. The present results reinforce previous conclusions about the major influence that the Yucatan upwelling exerts on diverse marine biota off northeastern Yucatan Peninsula, improving the knowledge about the influence of local environmental parameters linked with upwelling variability to structuring the copepod assemblages.

Morphological and molecular analyses Protolamellodiscus senilobatus (Monogenea: Diplectanidae), a gill parasite infecting the soldier bream Argyrops filamentosus (Sparidae)

Monopisthocotyleans belonging to the family Diplectanidae infect marine fish and are distinguished by a posterior complex haptor. The solider bream Argyrops filamentosus Valenciennes (Perciformes: Sparidae), is one such species that is under consideration caught from the Red Sea (Saudi Arabia). This study is the first description of a diplectanid species from the gills of the soldier bream fish, morphologically by light as well as by molecular analysis of the parasite partial 28S rRNA sequences through multiple alignments and phylogeny by maximum likelihood (ML) analysis which is provided for the first time for the described parasite species. Thirty soldier bream fish were collected from marine water off Saudi Arabia; gills were detached and further analyzed for parasitic infection. A monogenean parasite with a complicated haptor made up of two comparable lamellodiscs, three bilateral pairs of lobes, two pairs of anchors, three bars, and seven pairs of marginal hooks was discovered to naturally infect 21 samples of the examined fish. The molecular analysis of the parasite 28S rRNA and phylogeny revealed a percentage of identities 98.41–77.97 % for Diplectanidae species within a monophyletic clade of Dactylogyridea where a maximum percentage of 98.41 % were obtained for morphologically different sister taxon Lamellodiscus acanthopagri. The results of phylogeny are in line with those obtained through morphological classification, which showed that the parasite identified shared morphological characteristics with Protolamellodiscus senilobatus, a species that had not before been identified by DNA analysis. Under accession number OP419541.1, the obtained parasite sequences were added to the GenBank database.

Mapping the fishing intensity in the coastal waters off Guangdong province, China through AIS data

Fishing activities result in a depletion of fish resources and an increase in bycatch probability of non-target species, which are thought to be the cause of the recent demographic change experienced by coastal cetaceans in waters off Guangdong province, China. However, fishing intensity and its spatiotemporal pattern remain poorly examined in this region. Here, random daily tracks from 100 fishing vessels were used to estimate fishing operations in the coastal waters off Guangdong province. The performance of two methods was tested with Automatic Identification System (AIS) data collected in the Pearl River Delta region (PRD). This assessment found that the Density-Based Spatial Clustering of Applications with Noise (DBSCAN) could falsely identify port regions as fishing grounds, while the speed-based method provided a more accurate estimate of fishing grounds with less computational effort. Subsequently, the spatiotemporal pattern of fishing intensity in the coastal waters off the entire Guangdong province was examined with the speed-based method. Our results showed that 87.75% of the coastal fishing activities occurred in waters <40 ​m in depth. The method detected two spatially heterogeneous fishing grounds extending from the PRD to either the west or east sides of Guangdong province. In the west fishing ground, 43.4% of fishing vessels operated in the waters off Yangjiang city; while in the east fishing ground, fishing activities were more evenly distributed. The present study suggests that the AIS is able to provide high-resolution data to monitor the development of fishing activities, which may be useful for informing marine resource management and spatial planning.

Richness distribution patterns of marine elasmobranchs in Colombia

An analysis on the species richness distribution of marine sharks and batoids for the Colombian Caribbean and Pacific regions was carried out. A total of 138 species was documented in nearby marine waters off Colombia, including 76 sharks and 62 batoids; 20 species occurred on both coasts with the Caribbean generally having a higher observed richness than the Pacific. The Caribbean had high richness values both in the insular as well as in the northern region. However, the highest richness values per spatial unit in the Pacific islands of Gorgona and Malpelo, with completeness richness estimate represented mostly by values below 90%. Richness estimators showed values higher than the observed richness, indicating that the inventories and the description of marine shark and batoid richness in Colombia are still incomplete. Despite this, the results of this study are relevant to make decisions aimed at the conservation of this taxonomic group, both in marine protected and unprotected areas of the Pacific and Caribbean coasts of Colombia