Water In Urban Areas Research Articles

Handwashing practices among the caregivers of under five children in rural and urban areas of Moradabad, India: a community based study

Background: Handwashing is listed as one of the single most effective public health intervention which directly and indirectly decreases the mortality among young children by eliminating over 90% of infections. But, unfortunately, the knowledge and practice of hand washing in the community appeared to be poor even today. The present study was carried out to study the handwashing practices of care givers, which could be a critical factor in the development of disease in the young ones. Objective: (i) To study the handwashing practices among caregivers of children under 5 years of age; (ii) To assess and compare the handwashing practices according to the area of residence (Urban/ Rural). Material and Methods: A community based knowledge, attitude and practices (KAP) cross-sectional study in the registered field practice areas of both urban and rural field practice areas of Department of Community Medicine, Teerthankar Mahaveer Medical College and Research Centre, Moradabad. The survey was carried out on 200 study participants using a self‑designed and pre-tested questionnaire. Descriptive statistics as well as simple proportion were calculated with SPSS 20.0. Result: According to maximum number of participants, hand washing was important. As opposed to the maximum number of people who used soap and water in urban areas, majority in rural areas used plain water for handwashing before preparing food and before feeding their children. Conclusion: There is a need to raise awareness among care givers of under five children who should maintain a high standard of cleanliness at all times to prevent infections.

A spatial model for evaluating the vulnerability of water management in Mexico City, Sao Paulo and Buenos Aires considering climate change

Abstract Water management in cities commonly focuses on reducing the risk of flooding and ensuring water supply by improving infrastructure locally. The supply of water and the process of flooding are directly related to the hydraulic dynamics of the watershed, however, and tools are lacking to evaluate and visualize hazards and solutions at the larger watershed scale. This paper presents a spatial model that evaluates the roles of water infiltration capacities and flood risks in watershed where cities are established. Understanding these characteristics is essential for managing water in urban areas, since water infiltration is related to the rainwater that may arrive to the aquifer, and floods are among the biggest concerns in risk management. We used spatial categorical data for land use, slope, soil texture, elevation, and precipitation to create a model that yields graded areas with different potential infiltration capacities, indicating susceptibility to flooding. The model can generate scenarios considering changes in land use and climate change up to the year 2050. We tested this model in Mexico City, Sao Paulo and Buenos Aires, three of the largest Latin American cities with different type of watersheds but similarities in population and policymaking. We found that climate change will decrease the infiltration capacities in Sao Paulo, but in the other two cities it will increase. Change in land use is the key factor, however, in reducing infiltration capacities and increasing the risk of flooding in all three cities. The model is applicable to urban areas in other parts of the world. These types of spatial models should be used in cities to emphasize the importance of watershed dynamics in managing water for the future.

A review of the bioretention system for sustainable storm water management in urban areas

Abstract Bioretention basins/rain garden is a very suitable low-impact development (LID) practice for storm water management around the globe. By using this practice in urban areas, flash flooding problems can be decreased and the environment of an area can be improved. The concept of bioretention was introduced a few decades ago and has been proven to be the best management practice (BMP) for storm water in urban areas. Due to urbanisation, natural surface areas are converted into hard surfaces such as roads, through which water cannot infiltrate into the ground. Due to this, infiltration decreases and surface run-off increases, which causes depletion of ground water continuously. In this study, we mainly explain the bioretention concept and its function as derived from different studies. This review includes different scientists’ results for the performance of the bioretention system at different locations. A summary of the research findings by different scientists on the performance of bioretention systems is also provided, including the hydrologic and water quality performances. Finally, future work necessary to enhance the performance and widespread use of bioretention systems is also explained.

Determining urban open spaces for health-related appropriations: a qualitative analysis on the significance of blue space

Blue space can be regarded as a key component of urban development as it contributes to sustainability, landscape contextualisation, environmental quality, quality of life and human health. However, existing studies on urban blue spaces do not differentiate between size and type of space and do not explain the mechanisms of how urban blue spaces interact with appropriations that affect health. In our study, we chose seven urban open spaces in Germany with different types of urban blue (in the cities of Bielefeld, Gelsenkirchen, Dusseldorf, Cologne). We conducted standardised qualitative interviews with n = 211 urban blue space visitors, assessing their health-related appropriations of those spaces (use, experience, social, meaning). Via Correspondence Analysis, we profiled these seven spaces. Our results show that blue experience is an important appropriation in urban open spaces. The amount of green and blue space has a significant influence on health-related appropriative processes. Health-related appropriations shift with the profile of the blue urban open space and the proportion of land the blue space covers. Even in cities with few water features, urban blue induces intensive (restorative) experiences, creates meaning, attracts urban dwellers, promotes physical activity, and diversifies health experiences in urban contexts. We identify implications for public health, urban planning and landscape design. This paper is a valuable contribution to the current research trend in Germany to analyse the significance for human health and well-being of bodies of water in urban areas.

Use of Ferrihydrite-Coated Pozzolana and Biogenic Green Rust to Purify Waste Water Containing Phosphate and Nitrate

Background: The activated sludge treatments combined to the addition of ferric chloride is commonly used to eliminate nitrate and phosphate from waste water in urban area. These processes that need costly infrastructures are not suitable for rural areas and passive treatments (lagoons, reed bed filters…) are more frequently performed. Reed bed filters are efficient for removing organic matter but are not suitable for treating phosphate and nitrate as well. Passive water treatments using various materials (hydroxyapatite, slag…) were already performed, but those allowing the elimination of both nitrate and phosphate are not actually available. Methods: The goal of this work is to identify the most suitable iron based materials for such treatments and to determine their optimal use conditions, in particular in hydrodynamic mode. The reactivity of the iron based minerals was measured either by using free particles in suspension or by depositing these particles on a solid substrate. Results: Pozzolana, a volcanic rock, that is characterized by a porous sponge-like structure suits for settling a high amount of iron oxides. In addition, the experimental conditions enabling to avoid any ammonium formation when green rust encounters nitrate were also determined within the framework of a full factorial design. The dephosphatation and denitrification process is divided into two steps that will be performed inside two separated reactors. Indeed, the presence of phosphate inhibits the reduction of nitrate by green rust and the dephosphatation process must precede the denitrification process. Conclusion: In order to remove phosphate, ferrihydrite coated pozzolana is the best materials. The kinetics of reaction of green rust with nitrate is relatively slow and often leads to the formation of ammonium. In this process, it is interesting to favor the accumulation of nitrite in a first step, these species react much more quickly with green rust and do not transform into ammonium.

Bacteriological analysis of drinking water in urban areas of district Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtoonkhwa (Pakistan)

Bacteriological analysis of drinking water in urban areas of district Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtoonkhwa (Pakistan)

Surface water areas significantly impacted 2014 dengue outbreaks in Guangzhou, China

Dengue transmission in urban areas is strongly influenced by a range of biological and environmental factors, yet the key drivers still need further exploration. To better understand mechanisms of environment–mosquito–urban dengue transmission, we propose an empirical model parameterized and cross-validated from a unique dataset including viral gene sequences, vector dynamics and human dengue cases in Guangzhou, China, together with a 36-year urban environmental change maps investigated by spatiotemporal satellite image fusion. The dengue epidemics in Guangzhou are highly episodic and were not associated with annual rainfall over time. Our results indicate that urban environmental changes, especially variations in surface area covered by water in urban areas, can substantially alter the virus population and dengue transmission. The recent severe dengue outbreaks in Guangzhou may be due to the surge in an artificial lake construction, which could increase infection force between vector (mainly Aedes albopictus) and host when urban water area significantly increased. Impacts of urban environmental change on dengue dynamics may not have been thoroughly investigated in the past studies and more work needs to be done to better understand the consequences of urbanization processes in our changing world.

Occurrence and partition ratios of radiocesium in an urban river during dry and wet weather after the 2011 nuclear accident in Fukushima

After the 2011 nuclear accident in Fukushima, radiocesium was released from the Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant and contaminated waters in urban areas near Tokyo. By intensive field monitoring during 3 years, this study investigated the temporal trends and the occurrence of radiocesium during dry and wet weather, and analyzed the variations in radiocesium during rainfall events and factors controlling them. Concentrations of particulate radiocesium decreased rapidly from May 2012 to March 2013 and reached an equilibrium in 2014. Concentrations of particulate 137Cs during wet weather were almost double those during dry weather in the same period. In contrast to the small variations in 137Cs concentrations in the particulate phase on a suspended solids (SS) weight basis during events, those in the dissolved phase on a liquid-volume basis fluctuated greatly, resulting in variations in the partition coefficient (apparent Kd). The apparent Kd of 137Cs during wet weather ranged from 30 000 to 150 000 L kg−1 and showed a significant negative correlation with SS concentrations during wet weather. Specific surface area in solids contributed to the variations in apparent Kd.

Prevalence and Diversity of Leptospires in Different Ecological Niches of Urban and Rural Areas of South Andaman Island.

Leptospirosis is an emerging disease around the globe. South Andaman Island is an endemic region for leptospirosis. We herein compared the prevalence of leptospires in urban and rural areas of South Andaman Island. The PCR detection and isolation of Leptospira revealed that pathogenic leptospires were prevalent in sewage water and household drainage water in urban areas and in paddy fields, vegetable field water, and stream water in rural areas. These results demonstrate that intermediates are ubiquitously present in the environment and may be responsible for asymptomatic infections, and also provide an insight into disease ecology.

Private Sector Participation in the Provision of Quality Drinking Water in Urban Areas of Ghana: What Do Households Want and Can Afford?

AbstractThis study conducts a survey among households in three cities in Ghana on how water delivery should be managed. The contingent valuation method was used to estimate the willingness to pay for improved water delivery under private sector participation. Results indicate that most households will remain connected to their current water supplies if private sector is engaged to improve water delivery at higher monthly water bills. Given that the mean household monthly water bill of GH¢10.82, the results indicate that there is demand for water quality improvement, and private sector engagement is likely to provide these services. However, this policy measure marginalises the poor in terms of access to water. Therefore, private sector participation in water delivery may require a complementary programme to promote access to water.

Desarrollo de una metodología para el estudio de las inundaciones causadas por encharcamiento de agua de lluvia en zonas urbanas relativamente planas. Area de estudio: Montería (Colombia)

In this paper a methodology for the analysis of the relationship between rainfall and flooding caused by ponding of rainfall water in urban area of Monteria (Colombia) is developed. Rainfall water excesses over the soil were estimated from field measurements of the soil infiltration capacity for different soil units of the studied zone. The results obtained are presented in form of statistical correlations for calculating water rainfall excesses over the soils and maps of susceptibility and vulnerability for floods. The maps were used for a brief socioeconomic discussion of the effects of flood events in the selected zone.

What are we drinking? Assessment of water quality in an urban city of Punjab, India.

Introduction:Ground water is the ultimate and most suitable fresh water resource for human consumption in the urban areas of India. Studies regarding ground water quality have shown that the higher rate of exploration as compared to the rate of recharging, inappropriate dumping of solid, as well as liquid waste, lack of strict enforcement of law has led to the deterioration of ground water quality. The present study was thus, carried out to evaluate physicochemical, as well as a microbiological profile of tap water, and filtered water in urban areas of Patiala, Punjab.Materials and Methods:The three zones under Municipal Corporation and two areas under Public Health Department were chosen according to the simple random sampling from Patiala city. From each area, 10 houses were chosen according to the systematic random sampling technique (n = 50). Water was taken from two sources, tap water, and from the water filter. Two samples were taken from each source one for the physicochemical analysis and another for bacteriological analysis. The samples which were sent for bacteriological assessment were collected in a sterile container.Results:The number of water samples found to be within desirable limits with respect to physicochemical parameters were significantly more with the filter water sample than the tap water samples. Suspicious/unsatisfactory microbiological quality of water was observed in 28% and 4% of tap and filter water samples, respectively.Conclusion:The results indicate that certain chemical parameters such as hardness, chloride, and fluoride levels were beyond the permissible limits. Therefore, we recommend that home filters should be installed, serviced appropriately, and their water quality should be checked routinely. Also, any leak from sewage pipes should be promptly repaired to prevent contamination of drinking water.

Impact of salinity on the aerobic metabolism of phosphate-accumulating organisms.

The use of saline water in urban areas for non-potable purposes to cope with fresh water scarcity, intrusion of saline water, and disposal of industrial saline wastewater into the sewerage lead to elevated salinity levels in wastewaters. Consequently, saline wastewater is generated, which needs to be treated before its discharge into surface water bodies. The objective of this research was to study the effects of salinity on the aerobic metabolism of phosphate-accumulating organisms (PAO), which belong to the microbial populations responsible for enhanced biological phosphorus removal (EBPR) in activated sludge systems. In this study, the short-term impact (hours) of salinity (as NaCl) was assessed on the aerobic metabolism of a PAO culture, enriched in a sequencing batch reactor (SBR). All aerobic PAO metabolic processes were drastically affected by elevated salinity concentrations. The aerobic maintenance energy requirement increased, when the salinity concentration rose up to a threshold concentration of 2 % salinity (on a W/V basis as NaCl), while above this concentration, the maintenance energy requirements seemed to decrease. All initial rates were affected by salinity, with the NH4- and PO4-uptake rates being the most sensitive. A salinity increase from 0 to 0.18 % caused a 25, 46, and 63 % inhibition of the O2, PO4, and NH4-uptake rates. The stoichiometric ratios of the aerobic conversions confirmed that growth was the process with the highest inhibition, followed by poly-P and glycogen formation. The study indicates that shock loads of 0.18 % salt, which corresponds to the use or intrusion of about 5 % seawater may severely affect the EBPR process already in wastewater treatment plants not exposed regularly to high salinity concentrations.

Impact of rainfall on the hygienic quality of blue mussels and water in urban areas in the Inner Oslofjord, Norway

The effects of precipitation on the hygienic quality of water and blue mussels collected from five different localities in the urban areas in the Inner Oslofjord were investigated, with samples analysed for Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., pathogenic Vibrio spp., Norovirus, Sapovirus, Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis. The sampling sites were located at varying distances from the outlet of combined sewer overflows (CSO)-impacted rivers/streams. In general, 1–3 log10 increases in fecal indicator bacteria and human pathogens were observed after heavy rainfalls. Blue mussels appeared to be a useful indicator of the impact of sewage at these sites, and generally a good correlation was identified between concentrations of E. coli and other human pathogens in the mussels. Provision of general advice to the public of avoiding areas near the outlets of CSO-impacted rivers after heavy rainfall may reduce the risk of gastroenteritis by bathers and others that may swallow water during recreational activities.

Rural:urban inequalities in post 2015 targets and indicators for drinking-water

Disparities in access to drinking water between rural and urban areas are pronounced. Although use of improved sources has increased more rapidly in rural areas, rising from 62% in 1990 to 81% in 2011, the proportion of the rural population using an improved water source remains substantially lower than in urban areas. Inequalities in coverage are compounded by disparities in other aspects of water service. Not all improved sources are safe and evidence from a systematic review demonstrates that water is more likely to contain detectable fecal indicator bacteria in rural areas. Piped water on premises is a service enjoyed primarily by those living in urban areas so differentiating amongst improved sources would exacerbate rural:urban disparities yet further. We argue that an urban bias may have resulted due to apparent stagnation in urban coverage and the inequity observed between urban and peri-urban areas. The apparent stagnation at around 95% coverage in urban areas stems in part from relative population growth – over the last two decades more people gained access to improved water in urban areas. There are calls for setting higher standards in urban areas which would exacerbate the already extreme rural disadvantage. Instead of setting different targets, health, economic, and human rights perspectives, We suggest that the focus should be kept on achieving universal access to safe water (primarily in rural areas) while monitoring progress towards higher service levels, including greater water safety (both in rural and urban areas and among different economic strata).

Spatial and Temporal Variations in Microbiological Water Quality of the River Wiwi in Kumasi, Ghana

Microbial contamination of surface waters in urban areas remains a central problem in Ghanaian inland waters. This research was conducted to assess the microbiological water quality along the longitudinal gradient of the River Wiwi in Ghana to cover five main communities that use and abuse the water for a range of activities. Microbial water quality of the river water was sampled bi-weekly for a 4-month period commencing November 2012 and ending in February 2013 at five sampling locations (Site 1–Site 5). Water samples were examined for total and faecal coliforms, Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp. and faecal enterococci. Mean total and faecal coliform counts ranged from \(2.3\times 10^{5}\) to \(2.4\times 10^{8}\,100~\mathrm{{ml}}^{-1}\mathrm{{~CFU}}\) and \(9.0\times 10^{4}\) to \(9.5 \times 10^{6}100~\mathrm{{ml}}^{-1}\,\mathrm{{CFU}}\), respectively. E. coli counts ranged from 0.00 to \(9.3{\,\times \,}10^{8}100~\mathrm{{~ml}}^{-1}\,\mathrm{{CFU}}\) during the study period, with faecal enterococci counts ranging from \(2.0\times 10^{1}\) to \(3.2\times 10^{2}\, 100~\mathrm{{~ml}}^{-1}\,\mathrm{{CFU}}\). The most upstream site (Site 1) consistently recorded the lowest coliform counts over the sampling period. Mean faecal enterococci counts, generally, increased downstream. There were significant differences (\(p<0.05\)) in mean counts of enterococci between the sampling stations. Relatively higher microbial counts were recorded at during rainy period in November. Significant variations in microbial loads were observed at the different sampling locations, implicating the varied community land-use activities in the catchment. Overall, the microbial count of the River Wiwi exceeded the WHO (2006) standard (\(1.0\times 103,100~\mathrm{{~ml}}^{-1}\) CFU) rendering the water unsuitable for domestic use or for irrigation of vegetables for direct consumption.

Distribution and origin of nitrate in groundwater in an urban and suburban aquifer in Mar del Plata, Argentina

The impact of urbanization on groundwater quality is of special concern for water managers dealing with the provision of drinking water to large urban centers. Nitrate is one of the most common contaminants found in urban aquifers. This paper presents a case study aiming at evaluating the distribution and sources of nitrate in an urban aquifer in the city of Mar del Plata, Argentina. Four study zones under different land uses, including a pristine, a semi-rural, an intermediate, and an urban area, were evaluated as a part of this study. The three latter zones are linked by the groundwater flow system. The average nitrate concentration in the pristine area is 6.7 mg/L as nitrate and is over the permissible level of 50 mg/L for drinking water in the other areas. In the semi-rural area it ranges from 39.2 to 107.1 mg/L with an average value of 38.2 mg/L and the nitrate concentration tends to decrease in the intermediate zone to an average value of 38.2 mg/L; however, values above 60 mg/L are also observed there. Then the nitrate concentration in the urban area water is higher than that in the intermediate zonewater ranging from 48.2 to 100.3 mg/L with an average value of 67.3 mg/L. Data on the stable isotopes 15N and 18O in nitrate show that the main sources of nitrate in the study area are manure associated to agriculture uses and cesspools in the semi-rural area, and leakage of the sewage distribution network in the urban area, respectively. This is supported by a previous study which found that 20 % of the water flooding many underground structures in the city came from leakage of the sewage network. No evidence of nitrate attenuation by denitrification was found in the groundwater. This study has shown that aquifers in urban areas can be affected by agricultural activity in the upstream areas and leakage of the sewage network in the urban area.

Incorporation and application of resilience in the context of water‐sensitive urban design: linking European and Australian perspectives

The water sensitive city is a term within urban water management in which the concept of resilience to extreme climatic events and climate change plays a key role and represents the interaction between different branches of water science, engineering, and other domains such as urban planning and design. In this context, resilience is the ability of a system to cope with or recover from inter alia floods and droughts and also to retain original identity in some form in the face of long‐term change. It is generally accepted that sustainable systems with respect to water management are mainly dominated by their resilience, which is intrinsic to water sensitive cities, and includes social, economic, and environmental as well as technical systems, such as built infrastructure and environments, and their interactions. Therefore, each system cannot be considered in isolation but needs to be seen as a part of wider aspects of water and urban services and utilities in resilient cities. New urban development can be better provided with flood and drought resilience because of the opportunity for the implementation of the available technical, social, and economic knowledge. This is different in the case of existing urban areas where maximization of the value and use of water requires more and in‐depth analysis. The growing movement for water‐sensitive urban design (WSUD), a concept developed in Australia, provides inspiration for maximizing the value and use of water in urban areas, with an increasing consideration of flood and drought resilience. Synergistic integration between the extant knowledge on WSUD together with resilience approaches can lead to the establishment of a new model for water sensitive cities which are also flood resilient. Similarly, dealing with urban flooding in a wise manner can simultaneously optimize the use of all kinds of available resources—also enhancing resilience for droughts.This article is categorized under: Engineering Water &gt; Planning Water

Quality of Packaged Drinking Water Marketed in Douala - Cameroon

Quality and safety of water are very important for the health. The proliferation of conditioned drinking water in urban areas of Cameroon these years raises the problem of quality control. This research was then conducted in Douala town, to determine microbiological and physicochemical qualities of local and imported conditioned drinking water, in order to inform consumers and help them to make better choices. After the survey carried out with the population in Douala town, 32 drinking packaged water in polyethylene bags and bottles were collected and analyzed. The choice was made according to the amount of the persons using this water. The research of the total germs was done by the Plate Count Agar, the coliforms determined by the Eosin Methylen Blue and staphylococcus by the Chapman medium. The hardness, the concentration of calcium and magnesium were determined by complexometric method using tetra acetic diamine ethylen (EDTA). The pH, the turbidity and the conductivity were determined respectively by a pH meter, turbidimeter and a conductimeter. Chlorides and nitrates were measured by UV spectrometric method. According to the results obtained, consumers surveyed choose a type of brand water for economic reasons, 82 % of trademarks investigated had worst sanitary safety. The analytical results demonstrated that 76 % of water produced in Douala are soft (0°F 43°F) and highly mineralized. Water packed in bags harbored numerous species of bacteria including Pseudomonas cepacia, Acinetobacteria, and nonpathogenic Staphylococcus; their densities were respectively, 23x103 ± 3605,55 CFU.100 mL-1, 22x103 ± 1732,05 to 54x103 ± 4582,57 CFU.100 mL-1 and 23x103 ± 2000 CFU.100 mL-1. Conditioned water produced in Douala (in bags) had the worse microbiological quality than the imported water. On the contrary they are softer than imported water.

Optimal planning and design of seawater RO brine outfalls under environmental uncertainty

Increasing demand for water in urban areas and agricultural zones in arid and semi-arid coastal regions has urged planners and regulators to look for alternative renewable water sources. Seawater reverse osmosis desalination plants have become an essential supply source for the production of freshwater in such regions. However, disposal of hypersaline wastes from the plants in many of these regions has not been fully and properly addressed. A simulation–optimization approach is proposed to design a system for safe disposal of brine wastes. We use a hydrodynamic model to assess the initial dilution of hypersaline effluent discharged into coastal waters. A regression model is developed to relate the input and output parameters of the simulation model. We then formulate an optimization model to determine the design of a brine disposal system with multiport diffusers in which the regression model replaces the simulation model. The design parameters are the length, diameter and number of ports of the disposal system. Given the parameter uncertainty, a chance-constrained programming model is used. This simulation–optimization framework provides planners with effective tools that meet environmental permitting requirements and restrictions, while achieving cost savings and adequate hydrodynamic performance. A case study demonstrates the applicability of the proposed methodology.