Types Of Water Bodies Research Articles

AQuA-P: A machine learning-based tool for water quality assessment.

This study addresses the critical challenge of assessing the quality of groundwater and surface water, which are essential resources for various societal needs. The main contribution of this study is the application of machine learning models for evaluating water quality, using a national database from Mexico that includes groundwater, lotic (flowing), lentic (stagnant), and coastal water quality parameters. Notably, no comparable water quality classification system currently exists. Five advanced machine learning techniques were employed: extreme gradient boosting (XGB), support vector machines, K-nearest neighbors, decision trees, and multinomial logistic regression. The performance of the models was evaluated using the accuracy, precision, and F1 score metrics. The decision tree models emerged as the most effective across all water body types, closely followed by XGB. Therefore, the decision tree models were integrated into the AQuA-P software, which is currently the only software of its kind. It is recommended that these innovative water classification models be used through the AQuA-P software to facilitate informed decision-making in water quality management. This software provides a probability-based classification system that contributes to a deeper understanding of water quality dynamics. Lastly, an open-access repository containing all the datasets and Python notebooks used in our analysis is provided, allowing for easy adaptation and implementation of our methodology for other datasets worldwide.

The aquatic plant communities of the Pilbara region of Western Australia: a region of arid zone wetland diversity

Context Decision making in conservation depends on robust biodiversity data. Well-designed systematic and rigorous surveys provide consistent and taxonomically broad datasets needed for conservation planning. This is important in areas such as the Pilbara of Western Australia with extensive mining and pastoralism. The collection of biodiversity data for aquatic plants represents a major contribution to assist in conservation planning and management of the region’s wetlands and rivers. Aims We documented the diversity and major patterns in the aquatic flora of Pilbara wetlands and rivers, to provide data to inform conservation planning and manage impacts of major land uses such as mining and pastoralism. Methods We undertook a systematic quadrat-based survey of the aquatic flora of 98 Pilbara wetlands and rivers. The full range of wetland types was sampled. Composition of charophytes and vascular aquatic plant communities were analysed against wetland permanence and water body type. Key results A diverse aquatic flora with several novel taxa was discovered. Charophytes were a major component of the aquatic flora. Floristic composition was strongly related to wetland type and water permanence with permanent sites showing higher richness. Less permanent sites captured a distinct component of the Pilbara aquatic flora. Conclusions The aquatic flora of the Pilbara represents a significant component of the region’s biodiversity. Patterning was concordant with previous studies of the riparian plant communities and aquatic invertebrates of the region providing synergies in reserve system design and management efforts. Implications High quality spatial biodiversity data particularly for poorly surveyed regions or biotic groups can provide major insights critical for effective conservation planning and management.

Using the Forel-Ule index (FUI) to track the water quality of subsidence water bodies across the life cycle of coal mining in eastern China.

The water quality and associated ecological risks in subsidence water bodies formed by underground coal mining are an increasing global concern. However, long-term water quality changes in these subsidence water bodies, especially across different spatial regions, remain poorly understood. This paper, by mapping the Forel-Ule index (FUI) a key indicator of water color, using Landsat datasets to reveal the dynamic evolution of water quality in 402 subsidence water bodies in the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain of eastern China from 1990 to 2020, covering their life cycle from formation to extinction. We identified three types of subsidence water bodies, including growing (14.4%), stable (35.1%), and shrinking (50.5%), almost all of which were found to exhibit eutrophic conditions. The findings revealed a blue-shift trend, indicative of improved water quality, was observed in nearly half (45.3%) of the water bodies. During mining, water quality was generally poor with higher average FUI values, but gradually improved at an average rate of -0.09yr⁻1. FUI values experienced a brief period of stability before deteriorating post-mining, with an average rate of 0.05yr⁻1. Our study provides valuable insights into the governance of subsidence water bodies in coal mining areas by revealing large-scale, long-term trends in water quality evolution.

Physics‐Informed Estimation of Tidal and Subtidal Flow Fields From ADCP Repeat Transect Data

AbstractAcoustic Doppler current profilers (ADCPs) are a global standard in observing flow fields in rivers, estuaries and the coastal ocean. To date, it remains a labor intensive challenge to isolate mean flow fields governed by river discharge, tides and atmospheric forcing on the one hand, from small‐scale turbulence, positioning imprecision, Doppler noise and erroneous backscatter, on the other hand. Here, we introduce a generic, new method of combining raw shipborne ADCP transect data with continuity and smoothness constraints to obtain better estimates of turbulence‐averaged three‐dimensional flow velocities in any type of open water body. The physical constraints are enforced with variable relative importance via generalized Tikhonov regularization. We demonstrate that in complex estuarine flow, this procedure allows for more reliable estimates of tidal amplitudes, phases and their gradients than what is possible with a purely data‐based approach, by testing the method's generalization capabilities and robustness to turbulence and measurement noise on a data set retrieved at a tidal channel junction. The increased adherence to mass conservation and robustness to noise of various kinds allows for more reliable and verifiable estimates of Reynolds‐averaged flow components, and subsequently, of terms in the Navier‐Stokes equations.

Diversity of lakes and ponds in the forest-tundra ecozone: from limnicity to limnodiversity

ABSTRACT Arctic and subarctic landscapes have unique hydrological and limnological features and are now experiencing rapid change due to climate warming and permafrost thaw. The highly abundant lakes, ponds, and rivers across these landscapes play an increasingly important role in global biogeochemical cycles and are sentinels of environmental changes. However, studying these remote waters poses challenges for both in situ sampling and remote-sensing analysis. Here we developed a synergistic remote-sensing strategy that combined PlanetScope and Sentinel-2 satellite data to estimate limnicity (water fraction per land surface), limnodensity (density of water bodies), and limnodiversity (optical diversity of water bodies) along a boreal forest-tundra transect, from the non-permafrost to the continuous permafrost zones of western Nunavik (Subarctic Canada). Our analyses show that this region hosts 335,281 water bodies, around 90% in the 0.0001 to 0.01 km2 size range. In bedrock outcrops, large water bodies were mostly associated with glacially carved depressions (higher limnicity). In contrast, small water bodies were predominately found in sedimentary infills along valleys (higher limnodensity). The discontinuous permafrost zone had the highest limnodensity and limnodiversity. This was likely due to permafrost thaw (thermokarst), particularly the collapse, subsidence, and erosion of palsas (organic permafrost mounds), resulting in ponds with black- and brown-colored waters, and lithalsas (mineral permafrost mounds), resulting in ponds with brown, light-brown, and sometimes white-colored waters. Some of these limnodense and limnodiverse landscapes, although covering only 2 to 7% of the total area of the study region, contained over one-third (34%) of the total number of water bodies, 97% of which were <0.01 km2; they accounted for a small proportion of the total black-colored water bodies (23%), but a high proportion of the total brown- (60%) and light brown-colored water bodies (92%) throughout the region. This research underscores the utility of optical satellite remote sensing for assessing water body types and for evaluating their individual and distinct aquatic responses to climate change. The dataset may be used to improve the modeling of carbon fluxes by better categorizing small water bodies affected by organic or mineral soil type settings. This is an important factor dictating biogeochemical responses, with effects on albedo, climate feedbacks, and ecosystem dynamics in the boreal forest-tundra region. The framework developed here may be applied to landscapes elsewhere in the world that have high densities of water bodies of variable size and optical properties.

Possibilities of developing maps of sight-aesthetic attractiveness of underwater landscapes of lakes using the point-valuation method and spatial interpolation methods

Motives: The research investigates the feasibility of using interpolation algorithms for assessment using the point-valuation method in different types of lakes. It shows the possibilities of using the proposed methodology for underwater landscapes under various environmental and geographical conditions. Aim: The aim of the study is to test the point-valuation method for assessing the sight-aesthetic value of lakes in terms of potential for tourist exploration. The results are presented in the form of maps, resulting from spatial interpolation methods based on a random measurement network. Results: Maps showing the distribution of the phenomenon under study can serve as a tool for protection and planning of development and tourist use of lakes. Dedicated spatial interpolation methods for this type of assessment map were identified. The methodology is universal and can be applied, with appropriate modifications, in various types of water bodies (lakes). Conclusion: Successful implementation of point-valuation methods and interpolation algorithms for assessing the sight-aesthetic attractiveness of underwater landscapes of lakes has been achieved. These are pioneering studies in the field of underwater landscape perception and cartographic presentation methodology. This contributes to the development of principles for protection, tourist use (qualified tourism – diving), and channelling tourist traffic in places attractive to users.

Global floating PV status and potential

Abstract Floating photovoltaics (FPV) has been a rapidly growing source of renewable electricity for the past 15 years since first commercial systems were installed. In this work, the insights from SERIS FPV database are shared. This is likely the largest database of its kind and contains the information from 1142 FPV systems in operation, totalling 5.9 GWp, by the end of 2022. Mainland China has been leading FPV installation capacities since 2017 and comprises almost half of the cumulative installed capacity. Similar to land-based PV, FPV installation size has been increasing; the median size has grown from 0.09 MWp in 2013 to 1.40 MWp in 2022, while the median power density has increased from 82 Wp m−2 to 123 Wp m−2 in the same timeframe. The installation cost has fallen simultaneously – the lowest reported was 0.41 USD/Wp in India in 2021. Other pertinent insights from SERIS FPV database include float supplier market share, reported electricity price, water body types and characteristics, as well as its coverage ratio. Finally, the global FPV potential (capacity, energy production, and water saving), for different tilt angles, tracking configurations, and solar panel types are explored. By installing FPV on 10% of the area of 249 717 inland reservoirs, FPV capacity could reach up to 22 TWp and could fulfil the whole global electricity consumption and up to 5% of the world’s water demand. The use of trackers and bifacial panels are advantageous for energy generation in all locations, with trackers increasing specific energy yield of a typical fixed 10° tilt FPV by up to 50% for reservoirs within ± 40 ∘ latitude, while the bifacial gains reach up to 4.5% for all analysed configurations within ± 40 ∘ latitude. The insights from this global FPV market and potential analysis can serve as a reliable reference for FPV stakeholders, researchers, and regulators alike.

Unintentional drowning fatalities in Sweden between 2002 and 2021

BackgroundDespite declining over the past three decades, unintentional drownings still account for an estimated 236 000 annual deaths worldwide. Susceptibility persists amongst demographic groups and is influenced by sex, age, and socio-economic status, emphasizing the need for targeted interventions. Due to rapidly evolving population dynamics, particularly within Europe, there is a further responsibility to understand the impact of ethnicity on the risks of drowning to guide prevention.MethodsWe conducted a national population-based retrospective study using data from the Swedish National Board of Forensic Medicine and Statistics Sweden for the years 2002 to 2021. The analysis includes variables such as age, sex, presence of alcohol and narcotics as well as activity undertaken at the time of drowning and type of water body. Furthermore, we considered ethnicity to identify subpopulations at greater risks.ResultsResults revealed a plateau in unintentional drowning rates in Sweden since 2012, despite an overall decrease from 2002 to 2021. Findings confirm the trend that males are overrepresented within drowning statistics across all age groups, and that individuals aged > 50 constitute over half of all unintentional drownings. Men aged between 40-69 years boating, and individuals of non-Swedish origin, particularly those < 20 years of age, face a notably greater risk of drowning, underscoring the need for subpopulation-targeted prevention strategies.ConclusionThe ten-year plateau in unintentional drowning signals the need for an official national prevention strategy with annual evaluations. Suggestions also include improved parental supervision of children, further avoidance of alcohol while swimming and boating, as well as targeted swimming lessons and water competency training for individuals of non-Swedish origin.

Dynamics of Changes in the Surface Area of Water Bodies in Subsidence Basins in Mining Areas

The Silesian Upland in southern Poland is known as a place where subsidence processes induced by mining activities occur in an area of nearly 1500 square kilometres, with many water bodies that formed in subsidence basins. This study concerned the dynamics of changes in the occurrence, boundaries and area of water bodies in subsidence basins (using orthoimagery from 1996 to 2023), as well as the assessment of the factors underlying the morphogenetic and hydrogenetic transformations of these basins. Within the subsidence basins covered by the study, water bodies occupied a total area that changed from 9.22 hectares in 1996 to 48.43 hectares in 2003, with a maximum of 52.30 hectares in 2009. The obtained figures testify to the extremely dynamic changes taking place in subsidence basins, which are unprecedented within such short time intervals in the case of other morphogenetic types of lakes and anthropogenic water bodies (for instance, from 1996 to 2003, the basin of the Brantka water body in Bytom underwent a more than two-fold change in its area, with RA values in the range of 54.4% to 131.9). A reflection of the dynamics of short-term changes in the water bodies in question in the period from 1996 to 2023 is the increase in the water area of the three studied water bodies, which was projected by linear regression to range from 0.09 hectares/year to 0.56 hectares/year. The area change trends, as determined by polynomial regression, suggest a slight decrease in the water table within the last few years, as well as within the next few years, for each of the studied basins.

Repeatable patterns in the distribution of freshwater biodiversity indicators across contrasting landscapes

ContextFreshwater biodiversity is declining at unparalleled rates, but fundamental questions remain over how it is distributed at the spatial scales most relevant for conservation management.ObjectivesHere, we test the hypothesis that freshwater biodiversity is distributed across standing waterbody types in a pattern that is reproducible across disparate biota and contrasting landscapes, such that conservation efforts can be aligned across landscapes and taxa.MethodsWe analysed the richness, composition and distribution of macrophytes, molluscs, beetles and odonates from 199 standing waterbodies (lakes, ponds, ditches and canals) nested within UK landscapes with contrasting dominant land use (agricultural, upland and suburban).ResultsWe found a common pattern in the distribution of our biodiversity indicators across waterbody types in all landscapes that was largely repeated across biota; lakes consistently had the highest or equal alpha diversity and supported a greater proportion of the sampled species pool in each landscape (mean = 86%) in comparison to ponds (74%). Landscape-specific waterbody types (ditches and canals) also contributed significantly to the regional species pool (69 and 33% respectively). Each waterbody type contributed uniquely to landscape biodiversity and usually species of conservation concern, rather than simply supporting a subset of ubiquitous species found in lakes.ConclusionsLandscape-wide management strategies that encompass multiple habitats and biota should prove advantageous and generalisable. However, our study landscapes suggest that long-term biodiversity conservation should also recognise lakes as a priority for nature recovery, both to minimise further losses and to maintain the largest reservoir of biodiversity.

Flow, Stagnation, and Renewal: Understanding the Symbolic Dimensions of Water in Anuradha Roy’s ‘An Atlas of Impossible Longing’

Water is one of nature's gifts to the earth, carrying a multitude of meanings and interpretations based on its context. Water in literature is studied from a variety of theoretical perspectives due to its rich symbolism and different narrative roles. This paper aims to explore Indian writer Anuradha Roy’s novel, "An Atlas of Impossible Longing," through Gaston Bachelad’s water symbolism theory and investigates how numerous types of water bodies, including rivers, ponds, and rain, each with its own meanings and thematic importance, with the river playing a central part in the novel. This study explores the symbolism of water through three key themes: "Flow and Transformation," "Stagnation and Reflection," and "Renewal and Destruction." It examines how water functions as both a healing and destructive force in human life. Using a qualitative approach, the study combines textual analysis with theoretical interpretation based on Gaston Bachelard’s symbolism theory from Water and Dreams: An Essay on the Imagination of Matter. Through a close reading of the novel, it highlights how water serves as a metaphorical device, reflecting characters’ emotional states, personal growth, and existential challenges. This research stands out by providing a comprehensive analysis of how Anuradha Roy integrates water symbolism in contemporary Indian Literature through her narrative structure and highlights its multidimensional role in the story. The novelty lies in its comparative analysis of Roy’s water imagery with broader literary traditions, creating new insights into how water symbolism functions both as an ecological signifier and a transformative metaphor in the human experience.

Comparative Study on Degradation Methods of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Compounds in Water

Abstract. This article aims to explore the degradation methods of per- and polyfluoroalkyl compounds (PFASs) in water bodies, and analyze the principles, advantages and disadvantages of different degradation methods and their application effects in different types of water bodies. In view of the wide application, long half-life, high mobility and potential harm to the ecological environment and biological health of PFASs, it is of great significance to study their effective degradation methods. By reviewing the existing literature, this article lists several major PFASs degradation methods, such as photocatalysis, activated carbon adsorption, and advanced oxidation, and compares their performance characteristics, which provides a scientific basis for the control of PFASs pollution in water bodies.

Characteristics of dissolved organic matter in water bodies during the dry season in the Huainan section of the Huaihe River Basin in Northern Anhui Province, China

This study investigated the spatial heterogeneity of dissolved organic matter (DOM) composition and characteristics in the central reaches of the Huaihe River Basin. The dry season DOM content and composition of three river bodies (the main stream of Huaihe River, the Huaihe tributaries and agricultural drainage ditches) in the Huaihe River Basin were studied using UV-Vis and three-dimensional fluorescence spectroscopy combined with parallel factor analysis (EEMs-PARAFAC). The degree of DOM humification and the relative molecular weight of tributaries and agricultural drainage ditches were significantly higher than those of the main stream (p < 0.01), and regarding the autogenetic characteristics of the three types of water bodies the tributaries and drainage ditches were more strongly affected by exogenous interference than the main stream. Three kinds of chemical components were determined by PARAFAC mode(C1:terrsstrial humus-like;C2:tryptophan-like;C3:protein-like), protein-like components were the main fluorescent components in DOM during the dry season, the proportion of different water systems exceeds 50%. Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that the fluorescence intensity of humus was closely related to the TP(Total phosphorus) concentration in the Huainan section water body of the Huaihe River Basin during the dry season. The absolute principal component-multiple linear regression model showed that the contribution of water nutrition to the C2 and C3 of protein-like fluorescent components was greater, while exogenous interference had a greater effect on the TP physicochemical index.

Updated checklist, habitat affinities, and changes over time of the Indiana (USA) caddisfly fauna (Insecta, Trichoptera).

Based on recent collecting and a synthesis of ~100 years of historical data, 219 caddisfly species are reported from the state of Indiana. Seventeen species are reported herein from the state for the first time, including two previously thought to be endemic to the southeastern USA. Species records are also presented herein organized by drainage basin, ecoregion, glacial history, and waterbody type for two distinct time periods: before 1983 and after 2005. More species were reported from the state before 1983 than after 2005, despite collecting almost 3× the number of occurrence records during the latter period. Species occurrence records were greater for most families and functional feeding groups (FFGs) for the post-2005 time period, although the Limnephilidae, Phryganeidae, Molannidae, and Lepidostomatidae, particularly those in the shredder FFG, instead had greater records before 1983. This loss of shredders probably reflected the ongoing habitat degradation within the state. While species rarefaction predicts only a few more species to be found in Indiana, many regions still remain under-sampled and 44 species have not been collected in >40 years.

Effects of Breeding Habitat on the Abundance and Body Condition of Two &lt;i&gt;Pelophylax&lt;/i&gt; Species in Agriculture and Urban Landscapes

Amphibians play a key role in structuring biological assemblages of agricultural landscapes, but they are threatened globally by agricultural intensification. Numerous studies have considered the morphology of animals to be an indicator of the health of a population, but data about the differences in amphibian morphology in different breeding habitats in agricultural landscapes are still missing. Here, we investigated the differences in the abundance and morphology of Pelophylax plancyi and Pelophylax nigromaculatus in the three waterbody types: fields, forests, and parks in agricultural landscapes in Nanjing, China. Our results emphasize that both frog species in forests and parks had significantly higher body condition indexes than those in fields, whereas their abundance in fields habitat was higher than those of the two other habitat types. Our results demonstrated the importance of non-agricultural habitats (such as forests and parks) in agricultural landscapes to the persistence of both Pelophylax species. We recommend preserving field ecosystems by constructing diverse waterbodies other than fields in rural areas and maintaining microhabitats in parks and forests to improve amphibian biodiversity in Nanjing.

Climate change and ecological assessment in Europe under the WFD – Hitting moving targets with shifting baselines?

The Water Framework Directive (WFD) sets the fundamental structure for assessing the status of water bodies in the European Union. Its implementation is currently entering its fourth six-year cycle assisted by a total of 38 guidance documents. The principal objective is to ensure good status for surface and ground waters. The functioning of the WFD is based on detecting the impact of human pressures on biological, physico-chemical, or hydromorphological parameters, and reducing these causal pressures through a program of measures to achieve good status. Climate change can exert a significant influence on ecological status by directly altering parameters monitored, pressure interactions, or influencing the effectiveness of programs of measures. Aquatic systems respond holistically to climate change with different pressures having additive, synergistic, or antagonistic interactions. The challenge is how to adapt the framework to manage aquatic systems in the context of climate change while maintaining focus on implementing measures to tackle key pressures. This paper examines potential approaches, including reassignment of waterbody type, quantifying the portion of Ecological Quality Ratio (EQR) driven by climate change, and creating an assessment module of climatic pressures and ecological responses. The overall purpose is to stimulate discussion and explore ways to incorporate climate change into the WFD structure.

Wastewater-based intestinal protozoa monitoring in Shanghai, China.

Intestinal protozoa Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, and Enterocytozoon bieneusi have been implicated in serious waterborne outbreaks worldwide. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) is a promising approach for evaluating the disease prevalence in a catchment population in that it monitors the contamination level of the intestinal pathogens in wastewater. We collected 48 urban wastewater samples (24 from influents and 24 from effluents) from the Yangpu Wastewater Treatment Plant (YPWTP) in Shanghai, China. We identified Cryptosporidium spp., G. duodenalis, and E. bieneusi by nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification. Cryptosporidium hominis and subtype IdA14 were identified in two samples by analyzing the sequences of small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) and 60-kDa glycoprotein (gp60) genes, respectively. The G. duodenalis sub-assemblage AII (n = 8) and assemblage C (n = 4) in 12 samples were determined by analyzing triosephosphate isomerase (tpi) gene sequences. The E. bieneusi genotype A was identified in one sample by analyzing the sequence of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of the rRNA gene. These findings suggest that improving wastewater treatment and monitoring the virility of pathogens in effluents is critical. We observed similar prevalence and genotypes/subtypes of the three intestinal protozoa in our wastewater samples as those reported in previous studies, providing evidence that WBE can be used as an effective epidemic management tool.IMPORTANCECryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, and Enterocytozoon bieneusi are common intestinal protozoa causing diarrhea. The infective oocysts, cysts, and spores released in feces can survive in different environments, including multiple types of water bodies. Humans can acquire these intestinal protozoan infections via the fecal-oral route as in waterborne transmission. Wastewater-based epidemiology can rapidly and reliably detect and monitor the emergence and spread of waterborne diseases. We detected Cryptosporidium spp., G. duodenalis, and E. bieneusi in a wastewater treatment plant in Shanghai, China, reflecting the occurrence and genetic characterizations of the three intestinal pathogens from community members served by the wastewater treatment plant.

Range maps and waterbody occupancy data for 1158 freshwater macroinvertebrate genera in the contiguous USA

Range maps are used to estimate the geographic extent of taxa, providing valuable information for biodiversity and conservation research and management. Freshwater macroinvertebrates are not well-represented in the range map literature relative to freshwater vertebrates. To address this knowledge gap, we provide range maps for 1158 freshwater macroinvertebrate genera based on two decades of publicly available occurrence data from the USEPA National Aquatic Resource Surveys, which included 11,628 sites and 6,906,990 organisms across the contiguous USA. Maps were created by applying unweighted and weighted pair group method with arithmetic mean clustering and single-linkage clustering algorithms to the occurrence data and creating three layers of polygons from the minimum convex hulls of clusters. A total of 25 freshwater macroinvertebrate classes are represented in the range map dataset. Most mapped genera were insects (394/1158), followed by malacostracans (242/1158), polychaetes (182/1158), and bivalves (121/1158). Additionally, we provide waterbody type percent occupancy data for all genera, detailing how genera are partitioned between boatable streams, wadeable streams, inland lakes, Laurentian Great Lakes, and coastal estuaries.

Box Type Minor Bridge on Small Rivers in Alluvial Region

Since time immemorial, humankind has been using various techniques to cross the rivers, streams or any depression without closing or obstructing the original flow through a structure called bridge. With the span of time and advancements in civil engineering, several types of bridges have come into existence like wooden, steel, masonry arches, RCC and pre stressed concrete bridges. Indian Roads Congress categorizes three types of the bridges on the basis of length i.e. culverts up to 6.0 m, minor bridges above 6.0 m to maximum 60.0 m length and major bridges above 60.0 m. In present scenario, minor bridges over small rivers has become necessary for development and prosperity of nation as most of the roads have to cross small rivers at several places to connect remotest corner of the country. Bridges, though a manmade structure, over a period become an important part of environment because in most of the cases water flowing below is used for drinking, irrigation and underground recharging. The alluvial region of India spread from Punjab to West Bengal has a peculiar nature because soil is almost soft in nature consisting of mainly sand, clay and silt which is fertile for vegetation. Water retention and its movement condition are high throughout the year. Several type of water bodies which exists in this type of region are pond, small drain, small and medium rivers which drains into the big rivers like Ganga, Yamuna, Ghaghara, Gomati and Sai etc. Since long time, road system on the earthen track and pucca has been introduced for traffic like chart, chariot and motorized vehicle. There were little number of bridges over major rivers i.e. bridge alone to cross over the river Ganga except in few places like Allahabad, Kanpur and Varanasi and over the Ghaghra Algine bridge, Maghighat, Bhatni. Some bridges were constructed over small and medium rivers in medevial period by local rulers and businesspersons, which have now become obsolete. It is found that most of the bridges are of masonry arches wooden and trusses having insufficient water and carriageway. After independence, the road network system has been improved to meet out socio economic needs of people. The new bridges have been constructed with standard road width and sufficient waterway. Study has been conducted for existing new constructed bridge system over small river and alluvial region of Uttar Pradesh to set guidance for future course of action in replacing and providing new bridges to optimize the needs of the people. Bridge system being provided over small &amp; minor rivers for the road network for new and replacement of older bridge at different site is varying from place to place. For this purpose, study has been conducted for sustainable option of minor bridges over small rivers discharge up to 300 m3 /s. It is found that the box type minor bridges are best option on small &amp; minor rivers.

Large-scale assessment of characteristic plant species on Eurasian saline and alkaline soda ecosystems

From an ecological standpoint, saline and alkaline habitats are considered as extreme environments for vascular plants because salinity and alkalinity serve as primary structuring factors that significantly influence the species richness of vegetation cover. The non-alkaline salinity stress on plants primarily results from interactions of NaCl, Na2SO4, and other neutral salts, whereas alkalinity stress is caused by NaHCO3 and Na2CO3, accompanied by an increase in pH. Some halophytes and salt-tolerant plants are well-adapted to such permanent abiotic stress. Surprisingly, they are able to survive and reproduce under environmental conditions of more than 200 mM NaCl concentration and are also able to live permanently in extreme conditions. The aim of this study was to identify characteristic and indicator plant species for permanently alkaline soda and non-alkaline saline wetland habitats, and to analyze the relationship between the chemical composition of water and the plant’s saturation index. Based on the obtained results we can conclude that plant species identified to live in high saline conditions may also grow under high alkaline conditions. Two groups were distinguished based on the salinity and alkalinity: “Saline group” includes all types of halophytes and halotolerant species, while “Soda group” includes obligate alkalophytes and alkalotolerant species. However, the diversity of plants in alkaline environment is bigger than in saline environment, and most of the halotolerant species grow in both alkaline soda and saline habitats. It is possible to identify three indicator species requiring alkaline soda habitats to live in (Aster tripolium, Puccinellia limosa, Suaeda pannonica) and three indicator species that dominantly grow in non-alkaline saline habitats (Juncus maritimus, Salicornia prostrata, Suaeda salsa). Different independent variables have been identified and analyzed to understand their influence on the species saturation index by calculating percentage of characteristic plant species of the entire region. It was identified that the plant saturation index has a significant positive relationship with the Mean Temperature of the Warmest Quarter, Topsoil Sand, and Clay fraction variables, and there is a significant negative relationship with the Solid Earth surface heat flow, as the heating can increase the extremity of the environment. Identification of indicator species of salinity and alkalization makes it possible to determine the type of soil, water bodies and habitats as a rapid biomonitoring method as a visual observation, without the use of expensive equipment and chemical laboratory tests.