Drop In Water Temperature Research Articles

Influence of three different pitches fillings on the cooling performance of wet cooling towers under crosswind

For a super-large wet cooling tower, the three-dimensional numerical model is established and verified for three different pitches fillings consisting of 20 mm S-wave, 26 mm S-wave and 30 mm oblique folded wave fillings. The research obtains the relatively optimal fillings layout with three different pitches and analyzes the influence of three different pitches fillings on the performance of the wet cooling tower under windless and crosswind. The findings show that three different pitches fillings can improve the distribution of air dynamic and temperature fields inside the tower. For the wind speed of v = 5 m/s, the inner zone radius (R′1) of 37.5 m and the middle ring width (R′2) of 10 m is the relatively optimal fillings layout with three different pitches, in which the water temperature drop and cooling efficiency are 10.5 °C and 60.91%, respectively. Compared with 20 mm uniform fillings, the water temperature drop, cooling efficiency, ventilation and evaporation loss increase by about 0.20 °C, 1.1%, 552 kg/s and 8.9 kg/s, respectively. Additionally, the relatively optimal fillings with three different pitches can significantly increase the cooling capacity of the wet cooling tower under windless and wind speeds v = 1–6 m/s.

New method to decrease the air recirculation of mechanical draft wet cooling tower group by increasing height of fan duct

The air recirculation will increase the temperature and moisture content of air entering the mechanical draft wet cooling tower group (MCT group) and seriously reduce the cooling capacity. This study proposes to increase the height of the fan duct to reduce air recirculation. The aerodynamic field outside the MCT group is reconstructed to improve the cooling capacity of MCT group. A 3D model is established to explain the influence mechanism of air recirculation and the change of the thermal performance of MCT group. The main research variables are crosswind speed and direction. The numerical results show that, after the retrofit, the air recirculation rate of leeward MCT is reduced by 10.9 % on average and 16.0 % at most under the crosswind angle of 0°, 16.8 % mean and 25.0 % maximum under 45°, 1.0 % average and 2.0 % at most under 90°. The water temperature drop is increased by 0.5 °C on average and 0.8 °C at most under 0°, 0.7 °C mean and 1.1 °C maximum under 45°, 0.1 °C on average and 0.2 °C at most under 90°, compared to original MCT group.

Comparative study on the thermal characteristics of natural draft wet cooling tower with internal and external auxiliary fans

Auxiliary ventilation is an innovative approach for strengthening the thermal performance of natural draft wet cooling towers, which can be implemented with internal and external fans. In this study, a three-dimensional numerical model for cooling tower with these fans is established, with consideration of the existence or absence of air deflectors. To comparatively study the thermal performance of the above cooling towers, some critical parameters such as the air mass flow rate and circulating water temperature drop are computed, and the airflow and water temperature field are also investigated. Results manifest that external fans can enhance the air mass flow rate greater than internal fans under various crosswind velocities, while they are more effective in increasing the water temperature drop under a lower and a higher crosswind velocity, with a maximum increment of 8.5% and 10.0%, respectively. The addition of air deflectors narrows the high-velocity area, thus improving the uniformity of air distribution. The positive effect of air deflectors enhances with the increase of crosswind velocity, which decreases the water temperature drop of cooling tower with internal fans and that with external fans by 10.3% and 5.6% at most, respectively. This study can promote the engineering applications of auxiliary fans.

Influence of layout pattern on thermal performance of mechanical draft wet cooling tower group

Mechanical draft wet cooling tower group is often arranged the back-to-back (back-to-back MCT group). However, the thermal performance of back-to-back MCT group will be weakened under crosswind. To resist the adverse effects of crosswind, an annular MCT group is proposed. A 3D model is established to compare the two types of MCT groups. The main research variables are ambient wind speed and direction. The results show that the outlet water temperature of the annular MCT group is lower than that of the back-to-back MCT group under windless or crosswind. The annular MCT group mainly improves the thermal performance of the leeward MCT, and the fluctuation range of outlet water temperature of each MCT in the annular MCT group is reduced. The water temperature drop of the annular MCT group is about 0.3 °C higher than that of the back-to-back MCT group under windless. Under crosswind, the improvement effect is most obvious under the crosswind angle of 45° with the increase of circulating water temperature drop of 0.8 °C on average. That is least under the crosswind angle of 90° with the increase of circulating water temperature drop of 0.3 °C on average.

Numerical study on performance of hybrid mechanical draft wet cooling tower

To explore the operation mechanism of the hybrid mechanical draft wet cooling tower (hybrid MCT), a 3D model of the hybrid MCT is established. The plume, water saving, and cooling capacity of the hybrid MCT are discussed. The ambient dry bulb temperature, relative humidity, circulating water temperature, and circulating water flow rate are taken as the main variables. Results that the ambient dry bulb temperature and circulating water temperature have the larger impact on the plume abatement and water saving rate, and the relative humidity and circulating water flow rate have relatively small impact. As the ratio of circulating water flow rate in the dry part increases, the water saving rate and cooling capacity of hybrid MCT are enhanced. However, when the ratio of circulating water flow rate in the dry part exceeds 0.4, the variation of water saving rate is not obvious. Based on satisfied plume abatement, by adjusting the airflow resistance in the dry part, the water temperature drop of hybrid MCT can be increased by 0.4 °C.

Insights into Environmental Drivers on the Reproductive Cycle of Diopatra neapolitana (Polychaeta: Onuphidae).

Simple SummaryThe environmental variables that drive the reproductive cycle of Diopatra neapolitana were studied in a population of Ría de Vigo (NW Spain). The identity of the species was corroborated using the six diagnostic morphological characters. A discontinuous reproductive cycle was observed, with a period of proliferation and oocyte maturation from January to September, asynchronous spawning events from July to October and a resting period in November and December. The reproductive cycle seems to be conditioned by the photoperiod and the water temperature. In particular, the sudden drop in water temperature, as a result of coastal upwelling processes that typically occur in the summer months of the study area, was found to induce spawning in this species.The reproductive cycle of Diopatra neapolitana was studied over two years in Redondela (NW Spain), considering both the monthly evolution of the percentage of individuals with oocytes and the variation of the mean oocyte size. Moreover, since three other species of Diopatra have recently been documented in regions geographically close to NW Spain, we first confirmed the identity of this species by carrying out a morphological identification of a representative number of the specimens collected. Our data showed a discontinuous reproductive season, with a period of proliferation and maturation of oocytes from January to September and asynchronous spawning events between July and October. Then, a resting period in the months of November and December was observed. We also explored the influence of some relevant environmental factors (namely, water temperature, photoperiod, salinity, primary production and upwelling index) on the observed reproductive cycle. The results suggest that water temperature is one of the most important drivers of the reproductive cycle for this species. Particularly, in Ría de Vigo, the reproductive cycle seems to be influenced by upwelling events of deep cold water that occur frequently between March and September, and that could act as a spawning-inducing switch.

Impact mechanism of the chip muffler on the cooling performance of super large-scale natural draft wet cooling tower under crosswind

• 3D numerical simulation on S-NDWCT with chip muffler is carried out. • The chip muffler enhances the cooling efficiency of S-NDWCT under crosswinds. • The positive effect of the chip muffler on the S-NDWCT varies with layout patterns. • The optimal pattern of chip muffler is proposed based on the tower performance. The noise attenuation of cooling towers mainly relies on the chip muffler, of which the layout pattern exerts a non-negligible impact on the cooling effect. This paper analyzes the impact mechanism of the chip muffler’s layout pattern on the cooling performance of a super large-scale natural draft wet cooling tower (S-NDWCT) through a three-dimensional numerical study. The layout patterns of chip muffler include three installation angles ( θ = 0°, 15° and 30°), three distances between the muffler and cooling tower ( L = 0.0 m, 2.5 m and 5.0 m), and two layout angles of the muffler ( α = 180° and 360°). Results manifest that the chip muffler can enhance the cooling performance of S-NDWCT by improving the airflow uniformity in the tower. The optimal layout pattern is L = 0.0 m, θ = 0° and α = 360°, under which the increment of circulating water temperature drop reaches a maximum of 1.04 ℃. The ventilation rate increases with the increase of L and the decrease of θ . The Merkel number increases with the decrease of L and θ . The circulating water temperature drop increases with the decrease of θ and shows little regularity with L . This paper can provide the reference for optimizing layout patterns and engineering applications of the chip muffler.

Influence of environmental parameters on the cold-end and thermal system of coal-fired power plant based on Ebsilon simulation

To analyze the influence of environmental parameters on cold-end systems, especially the natural draft wet cooling tower (NDWCT), and the thermal system, the 660 MW power plant was taken as the research subject. Based on Ebsilon, this paper researched numerically the cooling performance of NDWCT and thermal system under different environmental conditions. The simulation results showed that increasing dry bulb temperature and environmental humidity causes a decline of water temperature drop (△t), which deteriorates the cooling performance and leads to adverse effects on the thermal system. As dry bulb temperature rises from 20℃ to 30℃, total power generation and system efficiency drop by 6484.89 kW and 0.18 %, respectively, and drop by 9912.72 kW and 0.86 % when environmental humidity elevates from 35 % to 75 %. Meanwhile, simulation investigations demonstrated that crosswind affects seriously NDWCT and further affects the thermal system. When crosswind speed increases from 0.21 m/s to 4.75 m/s, △t and system efficiency drop by 1.6℃ and 0.17 %, respectively, and gross coal consumption rate rises by 1.14 g/(kW∙h), which leads to the reduction of thermal system economy. In all, influence of environmental parameters on cold-end system, especially NDWCT, and the entire thermal system were revealed, which provided a basis for dynamic analysis of coal-fired power plants.

Evaluating vaporization heat, thermal performance, and efficiency of a natural draft wet cooling tower

This study aimed to improve the accuracy of the thermal performance analysis of a natural draft wet cooling tower (NDWCT) and explore the effect factors of the decrease water and energy consumption. In this study, we determined the thermal performance and water loss of the NDWCT under dynamic conditions using mass-balance equations, and obtained water loss from 10.4 kg s−1 to 16.9 kg s−1. The analyzed vaporization heat accounted for 71.5%–86.9% of the total heat flow. Furthermore, the total amount of water discharged exceeded the average standard is 33.06 m3 has been spotted for the first time. Increasing the air-water ratio from 0.38 to 0.77, the cooling efficiency is increased by 44%. The change relationship between water temperature drop, water loss, air enthalpy, and air flow in the tower were discovered and established. The thermal performance analysis model based on water loss and air flow was used, compared with the total heat of the measured data, the maximum deviations were by 4.5% and 1.88%, respectively. The validity of the model was fully verified. These two models were combined with the heat balance equation analysis model based on three variables, which can provide support for optimal operation conditions that the energy savings and water reductions in NDWCTs, and providing convenience and a new reference for thermal performance evaluation, design, and research. Finally, we also proposed the suggestion for improving low efficiency of cooling tower is the most economical operation mode.

Air‐Water Mixing in Vegetated Supercritical Flow: Effects of Vegetation Roughness and Water Temperature on Flow Self‐Aeration

AbstractVegetated flow is rarely investigated for supercritical flow regime, in which self‐aeration occurs and modifies the flow dynamics, energy dissipation, and mass transfer between the water body and ambient air environment. In this study, natural river water was used at two flow rates in combination with six bottom vegetation conditions to investigate the air‐water flow development in an 18‐m‐long sloping chute. The vegetation configurations included two artificial turfs with different grass lengths and three flexible plant covers with different canopy densities, in addition to a reference case of smooth solid boundary, providing flow resistance and turbulent disturbance with different orders of equivalent roughness heights. Physical measurements were focused on the air concentration, free‐surface splashing, turbulent velocity, bubble count frequency, and bubble size distributions from the upstream non‐aerated flow to the far‐field fully developed aeration region. Compared to the velocity developing to uniform equilibrium shortly downstream the inception of aeration, the flow self‐aeration reached air‐concentration equilibrium at further downstream positions, while the bubble count and air‐water interfacial area kept increasing. The vegetation roughness conditions affected the inception location, equivalent bubble rise velocity, superfacial splashing height, velocity gradient, and maximum bubble count near the free surface, whereas the equilibrium air concentration in the fully developed region depended only upon the slope. The vegetation type influenced the percentage of submillimetre bubbles. Little differences were shown in the air‐water flow characteristics by repeating the summer experiments in winter with a 25.5°C drop in water temperature, despite the variation in fluid viscosity thus the Reynolds number under identical discharge.

New retrofit method to cooling capacity improvement of mechanical draft wet cooling tower group

The airflow distribution of the mechanical draft wet cooling tower group will become very uneven under crosswind conditions, and the cooling capacity of leeward towers can be seriously reduced. To strengthen the heat and mass transfer of the leeward tower and improve the cooling capacity of the tower group, a new retrofit method is proposed that removes the tower wall between the rain zone of the tower group. The airflow can enter the leeward tower from the windward tower, even flow out from the air inlet of the leeward tower under crosswind conditions, and the airflow distribution becomes more uniform in the tower group. A 3D numerical model of the mechanical cooling tower group is established and validated. The cooling capacity of the tower group is studied under variation crosswind velocities (0 m/s–12 m/s) and crosswind angles (0°–90°) by numerical calculation. The results show that the distribution of outlet water temperature in the retrofit tower group is more uniform. The retrofit tower group can increase the circulating water temperature drop of the leeward tower under the crosswind angle of 0° and 45°. Under the crosswind angle of 0°, the temperature drop of the circulating water increases 0.52 ℃ maximum and 0.31 ℃ on average. Under the crosswind angle of 45°, it increases 0.92 ℃ maximum and 0.59 ℃ on average. Under the crosswind angle of 90°, it increases 0.19 ℃ maximum and 0.09 ℃ on average.

Effect of Temperature Fluctuation and Nutritional Status on Starry Flounder, Platichthys stellatus, Survival and Adaptive Physiological Response

Starry flounder (Platichthys stellatus) is a commercially important cold-water fish. Our aim was to investigate the effects of fluctuating water temperature on flounders after periods of starvation and feeding. Fish were divided into starvation and feeding groups. The water temperature was increased stepwise in experiment 1; more focused variations, based on the results of experiment 1, were studied in experiment 2. At temperatures ≤27 °C, there was no significant difference observed in survival. At 28 °C, mortality increased, survival was lower (21%) in the starvation group than in the feeding group (46%), and weight loss was the highest (15%) in the starvation group. In experiment 2, survival was ≥86%, and there was no significant difference between the starvation/feeding groups. However, when the water temperature was increased to 27 °C after being decreased to 12 °C, weight loss was the highest (11%). Glucose, cortisol, superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione (GSH) levels increased with increasing water temperature, and then gradually decreased. Glutamic pyruvic transaminase (GPT)/glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (GOT) levels showed large variations among individuals. Triglyceride, cholesterol, and protein levels gradually decreased with long-term starvation. Survival was not affected by water temperature drop ≤27 °C after starvation/feeding. These results indicate that 27 °C is the upper limit of tolerable water temperature for the survival of starry flounders. Therefore, aquaculture farms should ensure maintaining water temperatures at ≤27 °C during high-temperature periods.

Influence of noise barrier and louver on ventilation and thermal performance of wet cooling towers under crosswind conditions

Aiming at the influence of noise barrier and louver on the thermal performance of wet cooling towers, a three-dimensional numerical model of wet cooling towers was established in this paper. Based on this model, the influence of the noise barrier and louver on ventilation and thermal performance was studied under crosswind conditions (crosswind velocity varies from 0 m/s to 10 m/s and crosswind direction α is 0°, 90°, 180°). To analyze the influence of noise barrier and louver on the air intake characteristics, the inlet air uniformity coefficient Cff and the effective inlet air velocity vave were defined. Simulation results manifested that the noise barrier increases the internal low wind speed area in the rain zone and the high water temperature area on the collecting basin surface. Compared with the original cooling tower, although the Cff increases, the vave and the cooling capacity contribution of the fillings zone CF decrease after installing the noise barrier, so the water temperature drop ΔTW decreases. Additionally, the louver can relieve the adverse effect of crosswind on thermal performance, and the Cff, vave, CF, and ΔTW all have an increasing trend under crosswind conditions after installing the louver. The louver can improve remarkably the thermal performance when the crosswind velocity is 6 m/s and α = 90°, and compared with the original cooling tower, the Cff, vave, CF, and ΔTW increase by 0.02, 1.33 m/s, 1.33%, 0.31 °C, respectively.

Refrigerant maldistribution in brazed plate heat exchanger evaporators. Part A: Testing campaign and experimental results

• Thermography is a reliable technic to evaluate refrigerant maldistribution in Brazed Plate evaporators. • Evaluation of refrigerant maldistribution at different evaporator working conditions. • Conditions with 0 superheat show a uniform thermal map. • The rest of the conditions have shown some degree of thermal maldistribution. • The effect of the maldistribution on the evaporator performance depends on the working conditions. The refrigerant distribution in a brazed plate heat exchanger evaporator with distributor has been studied with a thermographic camera working under different conditions of inlet vapor quality, superheat, and water temperature drop. The thermographies have shown a clear uneven thermal distribution except when superheat is null. In most of the cases, they show that a great part of the liquid accumulates at the end channels of the evaporator. The degradation of the evaporator performance is higher when the water temperature drop has a similar or higher value than the superheat. On the other hand, when the superheat is significantly higher than the water temperature drop, the evaporator performance is very similar to situations in which there is an even distribution of the refrigerant. The registered evaporation temperatures are much lower for the case of 13 K of water temperature drop, highlighting the importance of the influence of this parameter on the evaporator performance. This research is described in two parts, Part A (present paper) including the description of the experimental campaign, the obtained experimental results and the results discussion and Part B including an analysis of the degradation of the evaporation temperature due to the refrigerant maldistribution as well as a deeper analysis of the registered temperatures and of the causes for the great degradation observed when the water temperature drop is increased.

Refrigerant maldistribution in brazed plate heat exchanger evaporators. Part B: Analysis of the influence of maldistribution on the evaporator performance

• Refrigerant maldistribution does not have always the same influence in evaporator performance. • The penalty of the maldistribution depends on the relation between superheat and water temperature drop. • Two parameters are used to characterize refrigerant maldistribution. • The conditions with 0 superheat do not show any degradation in the performance. • Higher qualities produces a better refrigerant distribution in the evaporator. The maldistribution of the refrigerant mass flowrate among the different channels of a brazed plate heat exchanger evaporator with distributor, has been studied with a thermographic camera working under different conditions of inlet vapor quality, superheat, and water temperature drop. Part A of this work includes the description of the experimental campaign and a full discussion of the obtained results. This paper (part B) presents, first an evaluation of the penalty caused by the refrigerant maldistribution on the evaporator performance, and the effect of the operation conditions on that penalty; second, a data reduction methodology, which allows the quantification of the maldistribution based on a series of simple assumptions and the flow conservation equations. Finally, given that it has been found that the water temperature drop across the evaporator has a strong influence on the performance penalty due to refrigerant maldistribution, the water temperature evolution is analyzed in detailed and the reasons for its great influence are explained and commented. On this regard, it is concluded that the penalty of the maldistribution on the evaporation performance strongly depends on the availability of the secondary fluid in the channels where most of the refrigerant liquid is concentrated. The described data reduction methodology, based on the analysis of the thermographies and the measured evaporator performance, is suitable to give an estimate of the maldistribution which seems reasonable and consistent with the observed data.

Comparative Study on the Cooling Characteristics of Different Fill Layout Patterns on a Single Air Inlet Induced Draft Cooling Tower

To enhance the cooling capacity of a single air inlet induced draft cooling tower (SIDCT), the stepped fill layout pattern is proposed in this paper. A three-dimensional numerical model is established and validated by field measurement data. The cooling capacity of towers equipped with uniform fill and stepped fill is compared under various crosswind velocities (0 m/s–12 m/s) and crosswind angles (0°–180°). The results showed that the ventilation rate of the total tower with stepped fill is increased. Under the studied crosswind velocity and angle, the cooling capacity of the stepped fill tower is superior to the uniform fill tower. After using stepped fill, the mean drop of outlet water temperature rises by 0.29 °C, 0.27 °C, 0.17 °C, 0.10 °C, and 0.19 °C, corresponding to crosswind angles from 0° to 180°. The increment of cooling capacity is the maximum under the crosswind angles of 0° and 45° and is the minimum under the crosswind angles of 90° and 135°. The maximum increased value of N is 0.65 under the crosswind velocity of 4 m/s, 0.85 under 8 m/s, and 0.95 under 12 m/s.

Denoising MAX6675 reading using Kalman filter and factorial design

This paper aims to tune the Kalman filter (KF) input variables, namely measurement error and process noise, based on two-level factorial design. Kalman filter then was applied in inexpensive temperature-acquisition utilizing MAX6675 and K-type thermocouple with Arduino as its microprocessor. Two levels for each input variable, respectively, 0.1 and 0.9, were selected and applied to four K-type thermocouples mounted on MAX6675. Each sensor with a different combination of input variables was used to measure the temperature of ambient-water, boiling water, and sudden temperature drops in the system. The measurement results which consisted of the original and KF readings were evaluated to determine the optimum combination of input variables. It was found that the optimum combination of input variables was highly dependent on the system's dynamics. For systems with relatively constant dynamics, a large value of measurement error and small value of process noise results in higher precision readings. Nevertheless, for fast dynamic systems, the previous input variables' combination is less optimal because it produced a time-gap, which made the KF reading differ from the original measurement. The selection of the optimum input combination using two-level factorial design eased the KF tuning process, resulting in a more precise yet low-cost sensor.

Energy, exergy, economic and ecological analyses of a diurnal radiative water cooler

The increase in energy demand for water cooling in nearby future encourages the use of metamaterial-based passive radiative water cooler, which has application potential in a highly-populated country like India. However, an energy-exergy-economic feasibility study with the best tube design is essential before implementation due to climatic diversity, but not yet been studied. Hence, this paper deals with the analysis of the passive radiative water cooler and the study of its performance with respect to the variable water mass flow rate and water tube geometry. The research presents the monthly variation of cooling performance, cooler efficiency and COP concerning Indian cities of different climatic conditions. The study also carries out exergy, economic and ecological analyses and proposes a new exergy model. Results reveal that the cooling performance is low for humid climate as compared to arid climate. For a total cooling panel area of 10.75 m2 and water flow rate of 0.03 kg/s, a maximum water temperature drop of 3.63 °C with an associated cooling capacity of 42.46 W/m2 is obtained at Jaisalmer in October (arid climate). The least performance is obtained at Chennai in May (humid climate). Results also reveal that the semicircular channel increases temperature drop and cooling capacity by 15.8% and 14.8%, respectively, over the circular channel. Exergy analysis shows very high entropy generation and hence very low exergy efficiency for radiative cooling. The use of the radiative cooler over the electric cooler produces a maximum annual operational cost saving of 19.25% and carbon dioxide mitigation of 1.987 kg.

Crosswind influence on heat and mass transfer performance for wet cooling tower equipped with an axial fan

To enhance the thermal performance and relieve the impact of crosswind on the super large-scale natural draft wet cooling towers (SLWCTs), based on our previous research, through the three-dimensional numerical simulation of the SLWCT equipped with an axial fan, the impact of the fan positions on the thermal performance was investigated at various crosswind velocities (1–9 m/s) when the fan power was fixed to 200 kW. It is obtained that the optimized fan diameter and the installation height are 20 m and 18 m. Additionally, the characteristics of the aerodynamic and temperature field inside the tower with different fan positions were discussed based on the above results, subsequently, the change rules of water temperature drop, evaporation loss, and heat transfer coefficient are analyzed. The results manifested that the optimization scheme efficiently relieves the adverse effects of the crosswind, and the air velocity near the fan is significantly increased. By comparison with the case of no fan, the heat transfer coefficient and water temperature drop increase by 4.79% and 0.226 °C, respectively, and the evaporation loss increases by 2.86% at the utmost.

Prediction of outflow parameters for a shower head

Bathing or showering is one of the main pathways of water consumption. The shower head, as an important part of our bathing facilities, is directly related to water saving and bathing satisfaction. To design a water-saving and comfortable shower, it is extremely important to know its likely outflow parameters .In the resent research, the shower head structure and the water jet characteristics, and the Lagrangian control volume (CV) element integration method is used to establish a theoretical model describing the motion of the jet from the spray-holes of a shower head. The model also includes a method of calculation of the spraying force, considering the velocity distribution over the jet cross-section. The model can be used to predict jet parameters, spraying force, water temperature drop, and sprayed water volume distribution. To validate the predictions,experiments are conducted to measure the spraying force, temperature drop, and sprayed water volume distribution for the shower head. Comparisons between experiments and predictions show that the prediction accuracy of the model is satisfactory and the model can be adopted to evaluate the performance of the shower head. In addition, using the model, the salient jet parameters for the spraying hole are also simulated, and the influences of the flow rate and the size of the spraying hole on the motion of the jet can be assessed. These results guide research and development into water-conservation, energy-conservation, and comfort when showering.