Quality Of Water Supply Research Articles

Urbanisation and De-Sanitation: A De-Compositional Analysis by Taking a Case Study of Few Indian Cities

This paper has evaluated the performances of the cities in terms of provision of basic sanitation facilities in the light of growing urbanisation and increasing population density in the cities. To evaluate this, a study has been conducted at the school level sanitation in three growing cities i.e. Delhi, Bangalore and Pune. Three indicators have been chosen to test the sanitation facilities such as drinking water supply (both quality and source), availability of toilet infrastructure and its use, and overall awareness of health, hygiene, social environment, sanitation curriculum, various projects on health and sanitation and health related policies in the schools. The schools surveyed are categorised under the ownership of public, private and funded by society or NGOs. It is found that private owned schools are relatively better off in terms of provision of basic sanitation facilities and its awareness among the school children. This shows that privatisation could be a policy to improve the basic sanitation facilities in the urban city centres

Nocturnal hemodialysis

Patients receiving conventional hemodialysis have high hospitalisation rates, poor quality of life and survival compared to the general population. Many centres around the world are providing longer hours of hemodialysis - short daily hemodialysis and nocturnal hemodialysis - with a view to improving patient survival and quality of life. Studies have shown that nocturnal haemodiaysis is more effective than conventional hemodialysis in clearing most small, middle and larger molecule toxins and suggest nocturnal dialysis enhances patient survival and quality of life. Concerns include patient acceptance, vascular access related complications and increased cost. The purpose of this review is to examine the advantages and drawbacks of nocturnal dialysis, with a focus on applicability to India where the renal physician has to face cultural and economic barriers, erratic power supply and poor water quality.

Water Vending in Nigeria - A Case Study of Festac Town, Lagos, Nigeria

In most developing countries, it has been recognized that conventional water utilities have fallen short in providingadequate water services to populations. Festac Town, Lagos, Nigeria is a typical community that is presently not being servicedby such water utilities due to the inability of the Water Supply Agency (WSA) in supplying water to the area. Householdstherefore seek other alternative sources including water vending. This paper examined the role of water vending in householdwater supply delivery in this community. It identified the sources of water supply by the vendors, assessed their level ofpatronage among households and identified the problems associated with their operations. For the study, a total number of1,139 and 57 households and vendors were selected by simple random sampling respectively. The result showed that there aretwo main categories of water vending namely; formal and informal vendors. All formal vendors obtain their supplies fromimproved sources while most informal vendors obtain theirs from unimproved sources. Majority of the households considervended water as a coping strategy since they are aware of the safety implications. Therefore, most households are willing to payfor water services. The paper canvassed the need for government to recognize the role of water vending in water delivery. Itadvocated for a secondary level of supply mechanism among vendors in a bid to ensure quality water supply. The paperconcluded that the most sustainable strategy would be to resuscitate the moribund piped water supply system earlier initiated bythe WSA.

Determinants of individual willingness to pay for quality water supply: The case of Wonji Shoa Sugar Estate, Ethiopia

This paper analyses the determinants of households’ willingness to pay (WTP) for quality water supply, using the contingent valuation method (CVM). The study was conducted with randomly selected households in the factory villages of Wonji Shoa Sugar Estate, Ethiopia. The value elicitation method used is a close ended format questionnaire with additional close ended format and open ended follow up questions, which is closer to the market scenario respondents are familiar with. The empirical model used in this study is Tobit model. The result of the study revealed that the income of the household, education level of the respondent, reliability on existing water supply, respondent perception about quality of the existing water supply, household family size and age of the respondent are significant variables that explain WTP. The mean WTP for quality water supply is found to be $ 0.025 per 20 L container which is well above the current tariff rate of $ 0.005 per 20 L container charged by Oromiya regional government in Ethiopia. The demand for safe drinking water was also estimated for the study area. Key words: Willingness to pay, contingent valuation study, safe water, demand.

Determinants of individual willingness to pay for quality water supply: The case of Wonji Shoa Sugar Estate, Ethiopia

Determinants of individual willingness to pay for quality water supply: The case of Wonji Shoa Sugar Estate, Ethiopia

RELATIVE BACTERIOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF PUBLIC BOREHOLE AND WELL WATER IN BOSSO TOWN, NORTH-CENTRAL NIGERIA

Background : Water is an essential requirement for the survival of living organisms especially human but is also important in the transmission chain of many human diseases since certain pathogens which are capable of causing life-threatening disease survive in water. Aim : This study was carried out to determine the relative bacteriological quality of borehole and well water supplies within Bosso town. Method : Twenty (20) water samples comprising of 10 each of borehole and well samples were aseptically collected from Bosso Town and analyzed using membrane filtration technique. Result : The results obtained showed that most (60.0%) of the water samples from the boreholes sources except the samples from Rafin-Yashi, Maikunkele, F.U.T Minna, Tudun Fulani, contained coliform counts below 10cfu/100ml while the majority (90.0%) of the well water sampled had coliform counts above 10cfu/100ml. The organisms isolated included species of Escherichia, Pseudomonas, Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Salmonella, Shigella, Clostridium, Bacillus, Yersinia, Serratia e.t.c. E.coli had the highest frequency of occurrence (25%) followed in descending order by Staphylococcus aureus (8.3%), Salmonella spp (8.3%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (8.3%), Bacillus subtilis (8.3%), Clostridium spp (6.7%), Streptococcus feacalis (6.7%), Shigella spp (6.7%), Streptococcus pyogenes (5%), Klebsiella spp (5%), Proteus vulgaris (5%), Yersinia spp (3.3%) and Serratia spp (3.3%). Conclusion : This study reveals that well water and borehole water samples were contaminated with greater contamination observed with well water. This highlights the need for a continuous assessment of the quality of public water supply and intervention measures to prevent outbreak of water-borne diseases.

From Agricultural Intensification to Conservation: Sediment Transport in the Raccoon River, Iowa, 1916–2009

Fluvial sediment is a ubiquitous pollutant that negatively affects surface water quality and municipal water supply treatment. As part of its routine water supply monitoring, the Des Moines Water Works (DMWW) has been measuring turbidity daily in the Raccoon River since 1916. For this study, we calibrated daily turbidity readings to modern total suspended solid (TSS) concentrations to develop an estimation of daily sediment concentrations in the river from 1916 to 2009. Our objectives were to evaluate long-term TSS patterns and trends, and relate these to changes in climate, land use, and agricultural practices that occurred during the 93-yr monitoring period. Results showed that while TSS concentrations and estimated sediment loads varied greatly from year to year, TSS concentrations were much greater in the early 20th century despite drier conditions and less discharge, and declined throughout the century. Against a backdrop of increasing discharge in the Raccoon River and widespread agricultural adaptations by farmers, sediment loads increased and peaked in the early 1970s, and then have slowly declined or remained steady throughout the 1980s to present. With annual sediment load concentrated during extreme events in the spring and early summer, continued sediment reductions in the Raccoon River watershed should be focused on conservation practices to reduce rainfall impacts and sediment mobilization. Overall, results from this study suggest that efforts to reduce sediment load from the watershed appear to be working.

Examining the Level of Unsatisfied Basic Needs Among Low-Income Women in Peninsular Malaysia

The objective of this study was to determine the current level of unsatisfied basic needs among poor and low-income women in Peninsular Malaysia. A cross-sectional design using stratified random sampling method was employed to examine client’s level of satisfaction with regard to education facilities, healthcare services, housing facilities, water supply, public transportation services, safety, work opportunities and daily living needs. Findings of this study revealed that poor and low income women are mostly satisfied with the basic need indicators. The study also revealed a significant association between quality of housing, quality of water supply, safety condition and daily living needs are associated with respondent’s location – urban and rural areas. Policy makers should focus on establishing a supportive regulatory environment to promote sustainable development of poverty focused organizations in order to foster socio-economic progress among the low income poor households in Peninsular Malaysia.

Determinants of bottled and purified water consumption: results based on an OECD survey

In the face of dissatisfaction with the quality of public water supply, there is significant ‘willingness-to-pay’ for improved services. However, pressuring authorities for public sector investments in water quality services is not the only means at the disposal of households to bring about improvements in drinking water quality. On the one hand, households can invest in purification systems at the level of the individual household. On the other, they can consume bottled water for their drinking needs. Based on a survey of 10,000 households, this paper analyses the determinants of a household's decision to purchase bottled water or invest in a purification system. Negative perceptions of tap water quality (health and taste concerns) affect the decision to purchase bottled water and home purification, with much greater effect on bottled water consumption. The same is true of household income. Household size, the presence of children in the household and length of residence affects the decision to invest in purification, but not bottled water consumption. Concern about solid waste has a negative impact on bottled water consumption, and car ownership has a positive impact.

Intermittent Streamflow Forecasting by Using Several Data Driven Techniques

Forecasting intermittent streamflows is an important issue for water quality management, water supplies, hydropower and irrigation systems. This paper compares the accuracy of several data driven techniques, that is, adaptive neuro fuzzy inference system (ANFIS), artificial neural networks (ANNs) and support vector machine (SVM) for forecasting daily intermittent streamflows. The results are also compared with those of the local linear regression (LLR) and the dynamic local linear regression (DLLR). Intermittent streamflow data from two stations, Uzunkopru and Babaeski, in Thrace region located in north-western Turkey are used in the study. The root mean square error and correlation coefficient were used as comparison criteria. The comparison results indicated that the ANFIS, ANN and SVM models performed better than the LLR and DLLR models in forecasting daily intermittent streamflows. The ANN and ANFIS gave the best forecasts for the Uzunkopru and Babaeski stations, respectively.

Loss of soil and nutrients by surface runoff in two agro-ecosystems within an Andean paramo area

High Andean paramo and cloud forest ecosystems in South America are undergoing transition to agricultural activities such as potato farming and cattle grazing in many areas. There is a lack of data quantifying the contributions of these land uses to soil erosion and nutrients loss. Thus, we assessed soil quality in patches of potato crops and pasture for cattle grazing, and tested soil and nutrient loss from these two land uses in response to heavy rainfall simulation rates (100 mm h −1). Physico-chemical analyses were also carried out in soil and runoff water samples. We found that potato farming had more severe impacts on soil quality, with substantial loss of the silt fraction (low silt levels of 11.9% were found in soil composition) that prevents aggregates formation and increase soil instability. Furthermore, we found that potato farming resulted in much higher soil loss rate (5.67 g h −1) compared to that of pastoral land use (0.61 g h −1). Meanwhile, N and P average losses measured in runoff were 1.22 mg N-NO 3 l −1 plus 0.12 mg P-PO 3 l −1 for the potato crop, and 0.86 mg N-NO 3 l −1 plus 0.09 mg P-PO 3 l −1 for the pastures, respectively. We postulate that more effective and continuous rooting prevents soil disaggregation in pasture relative to cropping, and that continuous and extensive foliage protects the soil from rain-splash erosion. Finally, direct relationships appeared between the two agricultural practices evaluated and the loss of soil and nutrients. Thus, if anthropogenic practices such as those studied herein continue their widespread trend observed in recent years in the region, then two of the most important paramo eco-systemic services, that is, water regulation and high water quality supply, may be impaired with all the consequences this brings for human settlements and their livelihoods located down waters.

From international developments to local practice: Germany's evaluation and dialogue process towards Water Safety Plan implementation

The third edition of the WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality establishes a ‘Framework for Safe Drinking-water’ that promotes a risk assessment and risk management approach called Water Safety Plan (WSP). In Germany, the discussion on the WSP approach started with significant scepticism by various stakeholders questioning its added value in light of the high quality and service level of water supply. In response, the Federal Ministry of Health, the Federal Environment Agency and the DVGW Association for Gas and Water jointly took the leadership for initiating a sectoral dialogue process involving water suppliers and local public health offices, including a series of WSP pilot projects to evaluate WSP feasibility, benefits and expected challenges for scaling-up. As the regulatory system in Germany makes explicit reference to ‘generally acknowledged codes of good practice’ the paper also examines how far the suite of established DVGW technical and managerial standards already supports WSP implementation. The evaluation process confirmed an added value of the WSP approach under Germany's national conditions, clearly providing an impetus for safeguarding a high quality and service level of drinking-water supply. Various activities to support scale-up implementation of a WSP-type approach have been initiated, including the preparation of step-by-step guidance in German (i.e. DVGW Guidelines W 1001), information campaigns to broadly raise awareness amongst all stakeholders in water supply, and capacity building initiatives.

A Systemic Framework to Develop Sustainable Engineering Solutions in Rural Communities in Colombia

In several rural areas in Colombia there is a serious lack of water quality supply. Thereby the problematic situation is understood as complex one that involves stakeholders with pluralistic interests, multiple variables and requires the development of sustainable and suitable solutions. In order to address this issue, this paper proposes an integration of engineering design framework (CDIO) with a systemic approach. Particularly the approach emphasizes on systemic elements such as autonomy, systems within systems, cooperation between stakeholders and cause effect relations; it also proposes a previous observing phase for engineering design framework. Thus the proposed systemic framework aims to generate projects that improve living conditions in rural communities and promote the production of knowledge between the stakeholders to ensure sustainability in the long term. To illustrate the proposal, this work contains a case study that discusses a project carried out by a research team—Ingenieros Sin Fronteras Colombia—in a rural district near to Colombia’s capital. The experience, which involved and benefited 16 families in the community, provided strong evidence to support the proposed framework. The paper concludes with a discussion about the replication of this proposal in other contexts.

Towards a DPSIR driven integration of ecological value, water uses and ecosystem services for estuarine systems

The aim of this paper is to indicate the overall economic efficacy of competing uses of estuarine resources by integrating ecological value, water uses and ecosystem services into the DPSIR conceptual framework as an added value for policy making and management. The complex interactions between the socio-economic system and the ecosystem (as part of the ‘integral system’ as suggested by the second author before) require generic but still ‘tailor made’ techniques to quantify all relevant variables and to provide an integral view of the system’s status. One of the few techniques that can assist in structuring such complex data in an integrative way is the Drivers-Pressures-Status-Impacts-Responses (DPSIR) approach. Support and regulatory services (such as water supply and water quality) are essential to sustain crucial ecosystem processes and functions while the water required for human activities (water demand) is an essential system service. With the help of DPSIR, the main changes in the Mondego Estuary ecosystem (Portugal) were outlined, used as an illustrative example, and causes and effects described. Within the Mondego Estuary region the main water consumers are agriculture, industry, and households. Baseline scenarios predict an increase in water usage by mainly the touristic service sector. Our analysis illustrates that pressures from human population growth and related activities gradually increased over the studied period. Land-use patterns, diversion of freshwater flows, water pollution and morphological interventions directly caused physical, chemical, and biological modification and degradation. This consequently led to negative ecological and socio-economic impacts, such as eutrophication. The scenarios suggest an increased pressure based on an expected 8% annual population growth and an average annual decreased pressure of 5.2% per annum due to the current reduction in agriculture. The results show that understanding the water use-related complex and intricate trade-offs among ecological, social, and economic goals is fundamental in designing and implementing management policies and ecosystems restoration schemes.

Impacts of climate change on runoffs in East Azerbaijan, Iran

Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns have serious impacts on the quantity and quality of water supply, especially in arid regions. In recent years, frequent climatic droughts have threatened the water supply in East Azerbaijan Province, Iran. Because of the increasing demand for water, studying the potential climate change and its impacts on water resources is necessary. To predict the climate change based on the General Circulation Models (GCM), the successful downscaling tool of LARS-WG is applied. This stochastic weather generator downscaled the climate change of six synoptic stations in the province by using the HADCM3 model and three emission scenarios, A1B, A2 and B1, with the horizons 2020, 2055 and 2090. The research outcomes, based on the A2 scenario, show an average annual temperature rise of ~ 2.3 °C and an annual precipitation reduction of ~ 3% in the middle of this century. These changes shift the climate of the province from semi-arid to arid based on the De Martonne aridity index. Using the artificial neural network (ANN), a model was then built to simulate the effects of climate change on the runoffs in three watersheds; the results showed dramatic reductions in the flows. The results of this study could advise the designers and managers of this region to take suitable actions in securing the water supply.

Nitrate, sulphate and chloride contents in public drinking water supplies in Sicily, Italy

Water samples collected from public drinking water supplies in Sicily were analysed for electric conductivity and for their chloride, sulphate and nitrate contents. The samples were collected as uniformly as possible from throughout the Sicilian territory, with an average sampling density of about one sample for every 7,600 inhabitants. Chloride contents that ranged from 5.53 to 1,302mg/l were correlated strongly with electric conductivity, a parameter used as a proxy for water salinity. The highest values are attributable to seawater contamination along the coasts of the island. High chloride and sulphate values attributable to evaporitic rock dissolution were found in the central part of Sicily. The nitrate concentrations ranged from 0.05 to 296mg/l, with 31 samples (4.7% of the total) exceeding the maximum admissible concentration of 50mg/l. Anomalous samples always came from areas of intensive agricultural usage, indicating a clear anthropogenic origin. The same parameters were also measured in bottled water sold in Sicily, and they all were within the ranges for public drinking water supplies. The calculated mean nitrate intake from consuming public water supplies (16.1mg/l) did not differ significantly from that of bottled water (15.2mg/l). Although the quality of public water supplies needs to be improved by eliminating those that do not comply with the current drinking water limits, at present it does not justify the high consumption of bottled water (at least for nitrate contents).

Hydrological and Water Quality Indices as management tools in marine shrimp culture

The continuous monitoring of the physical, chemical and biological parameters of pond, effluent and inlet waters helps not only to predict and control negative conditions for shrimp farming, but also avoids environmental damages and collapse of the production process. The objective of this study was to demonstrate the importance of implementing a Water Quality Index (WQI) as a tool to manage shrimp farms and the surrounding natural environments, further to understand the main factors affecting water quality to prevent disease outbreaks. Water quality parameters of shrimp pond and inlet waters were monitored and measured monthly in a shrimp farm and in two other natural sites in northern Santa Catarina state, Brazil. The study was carried out between October, 2007 and October, 2008. Physical and chemical parameters (temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, salinity, turbidity, hardness, alkalinity, ammonia nitrogen, nitrite, nitrate, phosphate, silica) and biological parameters (chlorophyll-a, fecal coliforms, Vibrio and bacteria counts) were analyzed. To assess the dependency relationship between the variables the non-parametric correlation test of Spearman was applied. The Hydrological Index (HI) c was applied to evaluate the potential use of the two coastal areas for shrimp culture. The Canadian Water Quality Index (CCME WQI) was applied to compare the water quality parameters between the shrimp farm water supply lagoon and those two coastal environments. Results indicate water quality parameters and times of the year are related to environmental stress. Considering the amplitude of the variables monitored, i.e., temperature, salinity, pH, alkalinity, hardness, nitrate and silica, autumn may be associated with increased environmental stress. The (HI) c indicated that pumping water into the shrimp farm in spring and summer should be restricted, and during the rest of the year the supply water quality ranged from “suitable with medium restriction” (5.5 < (IH) c < 7.5) to “suitable with low restriction” (7.5 < (IH) c < 9.0). No difference was detected in the water quality parameters of the three study sites according to the CCME WQI. The application of a Water Quality Index adapted to the different production activities is useful to monitor water quality parameters. The WQI is practical, with easy and fast interpretation of data, and an important management tool for aquaculture enterprises.

FACTORS INFLUENCING LOWER REPRODUCTIVE TRACT INFECTIONS AMONG FEMALE WORKERS OF BA RIA RUBBER COMPANY

Objectives: This study defines the prevalence and factors relating to lower reproductive tract infections of female workers of Ba Ria Rubber Company. Subjects and Methods: Using the design of cross-sectional study from June 2009 to May 2010, a total number of 506 female workers of Ba Ria Rubber Company had been chosen to be interviewed, examined and tested for diagnosing of lower reproductive tract infections and related factors. Results and Discussion: It showed that the prevalence of lower reproductive tract infections (RTIs) was 43.1% in which 25.23% of Candida albicans, 1.83% of Trichomonas, 15.14% of Gardneralla and 57.80% of bacteria. Conclusion: Some related factors were work place, characteristics of job, economic conditions, the quality of water supply, female workers’ history of abortion, contraceptive methods, bathroom and environmental conditions at work place. Key words: Reproductive tract infections (RTIs), working environmental conditions.

Willingness to Pay for Domestic Water Service Improvements in Selangor, Malaysia: A Choice Modeling Approach

Abstract: The tasks and responsibilities of domestic water service management in Malaysia are handled by various government agencies. Sufficient water service and resources management is required for sustainable water resources conservation. In order to realized water resource conservation, economic effectiveness of water utilization (consumers), maintenance of water quality supply (source of water supply) and efficiency in allocating water resources (agencies) needs to be addressed. The objective of the study is to assess community preferences and values relating to alternative water service management with particular concentration on water service improvement. This study has applied Choice Experiment (CE) to investigate the current policies and potential alternative of water service management in Selangor. The studies are based on 230 respondents in Subang Jaya that were randomly interviewed for data collection in October to December 2008. The findings indicates that respondents are willing to pay higher for drinking water as compared to the current rate with improved in water quality (WQ), reduced the frequency of water interruption (WI) and increases in the consumer trust to tap water (CT). The finding of this study is very important in order to assists and recommends the policy makers towards efficiency of domestic water service management in Malaysia. Key words: Choice experiment; Water conservation; Consumer preference; Choice modelling; Willingness to pay

The economic value of basin protection to improve the quality and reliability of potable water supply: the case of Loja, Ecuador

The objective of this study was to estimate the economic value that people living in Loja, Ecuador, place on the protection of two basins when the protection is designed to improve both the quality and reliability of the water supply for human consumption by urban residents. Empirical results indicate that households have an average willingness to pay (WTP) of $5.80 per month to preserve the basins. The main variables affecting WTP are current monthly water cost, perception about the fairness of the existing water price, the number of hours that service is available, and the gender of the individual interviewed. The results of this study, and the later implementation by the Loja City Municipality of a basin protection project funded through a fee on water users, provide evidence that households at all income levels strongly support and are willing to pay for a project that has the potential to improve the quality of water services and protect the environment.