Water Supply Chain Research Articles

Pricing Strategies for Competitive Water Supply Chains under Different Power Structures: An Application to the South-to-North Water Diversion Project in China

Under two different power structures, where the supplier and the distributor, respectively, are modeled as the leader, this paper studies water pricing strategies in two competing water resources supply chains. We assume that each water supply chain consists of a risk-neutral water supplier and a risk-neutral water distributor. We build different decision models for two competitive water resources supply chains, derive the optimal decision strategies for the water supply chain members, and analyze how competition intensity affects these decisions. Analytical results show that when the supplier is the leader, its water wholesale price is always higher than that when the distributor serves as the leader. On the other hand, the retail price and the two supply chains’ channel profits depend on the competition intensity, but are independent of the power structure. To illustrate the proposed models, we apply them to examine the water pricing strategies in the South-to-North Water Diversion Project in China. The results showed significant insights into the pricing strategies of water resources in different routes of this massive water diversion project.

A Lagrangian Relaxation-based Algorithm to solve a Collaborative Water Supply Chain Network Design Problem

A Lagrangian Relaxation-based Algorithm to solve a Collaborative Water Supply Chain Network Design Problem

Monitoring three typical phenol endocrine disrupting compounds in drinking water of Suzhou urban area – from raw water to tap water

ABSTRACTIn this work, three typical phenol endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs), namely Bisphenol A (BPA), 4-nonylphenol (4-NP) and 4-tert-octyphenol (4-t-OP), were detected in water samples from the whole drinking water supply chain of seven water plants at three hydrographic periods in Suzhou, China. Almost all of the drinking water in urban area of Suzhou city is provided by the seven water plants. Every link of drinking water supply, including raw water, finished water and tap water were monitored. The results indicated that BPA and 4-NP were detected in all samples with the concentration of 0.067–0.118 μg L−1 and 0.111–0.350 μg L−1, respectively, while 4-t-OP could be detected in only a few raw water samples with the concentration lower than its limit of quantitation (LOQ). The levels of BPA and 4-NP in raw water were significantly different among three hydrographic periods and the highest concentration can be observed in dry period. The difference in removal efficiency of BPA and 4-NP in seven water plants was also observed among three hydrographic periods, e.g. relative higher in dry period for BPA and in flow period for 4-NP. Potential risk assessment hinted that BPA and 4-NP in raw water showed a low to medium and a medium to high risk respectively to aquatic environment, while in tap water, the health risk from BPA and 4-NP could be ignored on human.

Predictive analysis of microbial water quality using machine-learning algorithms

Given the increasing recognition of machine learning tools for use in water quality monitoring, enhancing their applicability in full-scale plants require investigation of their capabilities and limitations in key aspects of the water supply chain. This study comprehensively evaluates the performances of three Artificial Neural Network (ANN) training algorithms and three solvers for regression Support Vector Machine (SVM) with different kernel functions in the estimation of the counts of Coliform bacteria from measured records of physcho-chemical water quality parameters. In addition, input data were subjected to different normalization methods to determine their effects on the performances of both ANN and SVM models. The feedforward and the cascade forward algorithms yielded the lowest MSE values among the various ANN model configurations. No distinct disparity was found in the performances of the various solvers of regression SVM in the estimations. For the regression SVM kernel functions, the Radial Basis Function (RBF) and the Gaussian kernel functions resulted in the lowest MSE values. Both the ANN and regression SVM have comparable abilities in predicting the levels of the faecal indicator organisms in the raw water. However, the ANN models were more efficient in estimating intense variations in the levels of the indicator organisms in raw water. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5755/j01.erem.74.1.20083

A water footprint management framework for supply chains under green market behaviour

Abstract Freshwater sustainability has been emerging as a critical corporate social responsibility issue for leading businesses worldwide. An increasing number of companies disclose and evaluate their water footprint, embracing an end-to-end supply chain perspective. In this work, we first propose a strategic system dynamics model for capturing the long-term impact of various water management policies on consumptive water footprint and supply chain profitability under diverse scenarios of consumers' demand patterns depending on blue water-related efficiency (i.e. green market behaviours). We apply the proposed simulation model on a specific wine supply chain and demonstrate that, under specific green market behaviour conditions, technological interventions in agriculture (e.g. drip irrigation) are more environmentally and economically sustainable compared to industrial water recycling and reuse, while the combined application of both policies is even more effective. Additionally, the impact of water-efficient policies on supply chain financial performance is even more potent under increased consumers' environmental sensitivity. Based on the managerial insights obtained from our analysis, as well as current corporate drivers and goals, we finally propose a supporting methodological framework for the ex-ante evaluation of eco-efficient supply chain water management policies, considering the impact of the green market behaviour on water-related and economic sustainability.

A mixed-method examination of risk factors in the truck-to-cistern drinking water system on the Beardy’s and Okemasis First Nation Reserve, Saskatchewan

The provision of safe drinking water is a key driver of public health and a pressing health issue facing First Nations communities in Canada. Contaminated water is a perennial issue for reserve communities across the country despite numerous government investments. Many First Nations communities rely heavily on cistern use for their drinking water supply; however, bacterial contamination within these systems is frequent and a common reason for household boil water advisories. The sources of contamination during the process of hauling water to cisterns in First Nations communities have received limited attention in academic research. The purpose of this research is to identify the risks to water quality through the truck-to-cistern water system. In partnership with a Saskatchewan First Nations community, drinking water quality was monitored in the treatment plant, in delivery trucks and at 142 household cisterns and taps from July to October, 2014. Risks to water supply were identified through monthly water sampling and laboratory analysis, key informant interviews, and observation. Coliform contamination in trucks, cisterns and taps was most common during August. Total coliforms were more likely to be found in cisterns compared to household taps and samples from trucks. Chlorine residuals were lower in household tap samples than in cisterns for August and September. Together with the community, investigators identified contamination and bacteriological growth in cisterns and household distribution systems, and variable levels of total chlorine concentrations depending on month and site of sampling. Recommendations are provided for advancing guidelines on management of truck-to-cistern drinking water supply chains in First Nations.

Cyanobacteria breakthrough: Effects of Limnothrix redekei contamination in an artificial bank filtration on a regional water supply

Mitigation of cyanobacterial or “blue-green algal” blooms is a challenging task for water managers across Australia. In the present study, a regional drinking water source (located in Central Queensland) was studied to identify the potential risks posed by cyanobacteria. Data were collected from the drinking water source (a lagoon) as well as the drinking water supply infrastructure, at monthly intervals between September 2012 and December 2014. In March 2013 there was an extreme rainfall event where floodwaters infiltrated the water supply without passing through bank filtration. The floodwaters also compromised the bank filtration via erosion. The pump well and bank filtration system were subsequently upgraded/maintained in May 2013. Results showed that following the extreme event and infrastructure upgrade, two distinct Limnothrix redekei blooms microscopically identified, were detected in the drinking water supply chain. Further investigations indicated that the species was also present in the pump well infrastructure, a dark environment, growing on the surface of the newly installed pump well cement pipe. After observing the occurrence and habitat niche of this species during the present study, a suggestion was made to minimise cyanobacterial contamination and proliferation within the water supply chain infrastructure. The preliminary proposal is to use clean sand on the sub-surface layer of the bank filtration, complemented with biologically active sand as a surface cap. Furthermore, the culturing techniques reported in this study can potentially be used to optimize assessment for Limnothrix redekei populations surrounding water extraction points.

Use of Nonlinear Membership Functions and the Water Stress Index for the Environmentally Conscious Management of Urban Water Systems: Application to the City of Morelia

This article proposes a multiobjective optimization strategy based on a fuzzy formulation for the sustainable design and planning of water supply chains in urban areas that considers simultaneously economic and environmental objectives. Harvested rainwater and reclaimed water are considered as alternative sources to reduce freshwater consumption while maximizing water revenues and minimizing land usage. As opposed to other models that attempt to minimize water consumption, this work seeks to minimize the water stress index, which quantifies the impact of freshwater consumption with respect to the specific location where the withdrawals take place. We illustrate the capabilities of this approach through its application to a real case study based on the city of Morelia in Mexico, in which we show that the use of alternative water sources along with an appropriate water distribution plan can reduce the impact over natural reservoirs.

Integration of environmental aspects in modelling and optimisation of water supply chains

Climate change becomes increasingly more relevant in the context of water systems planning. Tools are necessary to provide the most economic investment option considering the reliability of the infrastructure from technical and environmental perspectives. Accordingly, in this work, an optimisation approach, formulated as a spatially-explicit multi-period Mixed Integer Linear Programming (MILP) model, is proposed for the design of water supply chains at regional and national scales. The optimisation framework encompasses decisions such as installation of new purification plants, capacity expansion, and raw water trading schemes. The objective is to minimise the total cost incurring from capital and operating expenditures. Assessment of available resources for withdrawal is performed based on hydrological balances, governmental rules and sustainable limits. In the light of the increasing importance of reliability of water supply, a second objective, seeking to maximise the reliability of the supply chains, is introduced. The epsilon-constraint method is used as a solution procedure for the multi-objective formulation. Nash bargaining approach is applied to investigate the fair trade-offs between the two objectives and find the Pareto optimality. The models' capability is addressed through a case study based on Australia. The impact of variability in key input parameters is tackled through the implementation of a rigorous global sensitivity analysis (GSA). The findings suggest that variations in water demand can be more disruptive for the water supply chain than scenarios in which rainfalls are reduced. The frameworks can facilitate governmental multi-aspect decision making processes for the adequate and strategic investments of regional water supply infrastructure.

Assessment of the Water-Energy Nexus in the Municipal Water Sector in Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia

When it comes to water and energy, it is hard to obtain one without the other. Water is required to produce energy and energy is necessary in water production and management. As demands for water are escalating due to rapid population growth and urbanization, understanding and quantification of the interdependency between water and energy, along with analyzing nexus interactions, trade-offs and risks are a pre-requisite for effective and integrated planning and management of these two key sectors. This paper performs an assessment of the water-energy nexus in the municipal sector of the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia, where the electric energy footprint in the water value chain (groundwater, desalination and wastewater treatment) and the water footprint in electric energy generation (thermal power plants) are quantified using data for the year 2013. The results confirmed the high and strong dependency on energy for the municipal water cycle in the Eastern Province and revealed that energy generation dependency on freshwater resources is also major and evident, especially at farther distances from the coastal areas. Thermal desalination is by far the most energy intensive stage among the entire Eastern Province water cycle. In 2013, it was estimated 13% of the Eastern Province energy generation capacity goes for desalination, that’s a 5% of the Kingdom capacity. Substantial energy input for desalination in the Eastern Province is attributed to the production and conveyance of water to the Capital Riyadh (48.9 kWh/m3 and 4.2 kWh/m3 respectively). As for groundwater pumping, it was estimated that 206.2 GWH was used for pumping 268 MCM in 2013 (0.764 kWh/m3). Energy requirement for primary, secondary and tertiary wastewater treatment was found to be the least (2 - 108 GWH) and was equivalent to an average of 0.4 kWh/m3. The water footprint in electricity generation was estimated to be about 739,308 m3 in 2013 (0.125 m3/kWh), a relatively higher value compared to the norm of gas combustion turbine cooling water requirement around the world, and is especially significant for water scarce Kingdom. Anthropogenic Greenhouse Gases (GHG) emission was computed to be around 17 Million Ton of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) for the entire water supply chain, with desalination having the highest carbon footprint in the whole water cycle (16.9 MT of CO2e). Carbon emissions from electric energy generation through power plants had significantly exceeded the entire water supply chain’s carbon footprint. Alternative mitigation options of management and technology fixes are suggested to reduce energy consumption in the water cycle, minimize the water footprint in electric generation, and mitigate associated GHG emission.

Identification of the critical transmission sectors and typology of industrial water use for supply-chain water pressure mitigation

The industrial system produces pressure on water resources by directly consuming the water needed for industrial production and by indirectly consuming water through intermediate inputs. To date, identifying the critical transmission sectors for supply-chain water resources pressure mitigation has been under-examined. To fill this gap in knowledge, we use a betweenness-based method in combination with the standard input–output table extended with water-resource sector accounts to identify the key transmission sectors using Zhangye City in the Heihe River Basin, China as an example. The results show that the sectors with low rankings of the production-based indicator do not consume large amounts of water resources to directly generate products, which demonstrates that these sectors have limited scope for reducing water-resource consumption. The results also indicate that those sectors having higher betweenness-based water use but lower consumption-based and production-based water use merit close attention because these sectors transmit relatively large amounts of water resources embodied in their intermediate inputs from water-intensive upstream industrial sectors. Consequently, improving production efficiency in these sectors has an indirect effect by lowering the consumption of upstream water resources. This study also shows that the betweenness-based indicator is able to provide additional information beyond that given by the usual metrics derived from the production and demand sides. Moreover, the typology of water use that we innovatively generate is able to inform corresponding and targeted sector-specific policies and strategies for mitigating water resources pressure.

Zika Virus and the Water Supply Chain

Recently, an epidemic broke out in South America, more specifically Brazil, which is harmful to women baring a child. This epidemic originally began in West Africa. This concern is associated with the increased incident of microcephaly in newborns to mothers infected by the virus. An ultrasound performed at 29 weeks of development uncovered microcephaly with calcifications in the fetal mind and placenta (Miaker, 2016). After the mother asked for a termination of the pregnancy, a fetal post-mortem examination was performed. Microcephaly was seen with verging multifocal dystrophic calcifications in the cortex and subcortical white matter, with related cortical dislodging and gentle central irritation. Zika Virus, or ZIKV, was found in the fetal cerebrum tissue on converse transcriptase–polymerase-chain-response measure, with predictable discoveries on electron microscopy. The complete genome of the virus was recuperated from the fetal mind (Miaker, 2016). The outbreak of “Guillian-Barre Syndrome, [a condition in which the immune system attacks the nerves], and Microcephaly, [meaning little cerebrum], have led the World Health Organization to declare a global health emergency. Gangliosides are crucial in brain development, and their expression correlates with neurogenesis, synaptogenesis, synaptic transmission, and cell proliferation. Targeting the autoimmune response to gangliosides may represent an underexploited opportunity to examine the increased incidence of neurological complications related to ZIKV infection” (Anaya et al., 2016). The purpose of this literature review is to determine the effects of the ZIKV on the nervous system in humans and across other species; we will also determine how Gullain-Barre Syndrome, or GBS, and Microcephaly are developed, and a probable cure to ZIKV.

Zika Virus and the Water Supply Chain

Zika Virus and the Water Supply Chain

A supply chain framework for characterizing indirect vulnerability

PurposeClimate vulnerability assessments are often operationalized by the analysis of indicators defined by the spatial boundaries of the community under study. These, however, sometimes fail to capture interdependency among communities for basic resources. This paper aims to propose a framework for characterizing vulnerability caused by interdependency by adapting a supply chain lens.Design/methodology/approachThe paper proposes a definition for “indirect vulnerability” that recognizes the transboundary and teleconnected nature of vulnerability arising from resource networks among cities and communities. A conceptual framework using a supply chain approach is presented for climate hazards in particular. This approach is then demonstrated through a rapid appraisal of the rice, energy and water supply chains and the waste management chains of Metro Manila.FindingsThe application of the supply chain lens to assessing the indirect vulnerability of Metro Manila brings to fore issues extending beyond the decision-making boundaries of local government units. Addressing these will require vertical government coordination and horizontal inter-sectoral collaboration. Thus, this supply chain-based indirect vulnerability assessment can be complementary to traditional vulnerability assessments in providing a larger systems perspective.Originality/valueInnovative tools are needed to make community vulnerability assessments both holistic and tractable. Existing methods in the private sector can be adapted rather than reinventing the wheel. This supply chain framework can be a useful decision support and planning tool across governance levels to comprehensively address vulnerability.

Assessment of the Bacterial Diversity of Aircraft Water: Identification of the Frequent Fliers.

The aim of this study was to determine and identify bacteria inhabiting the supply chain of an airline’s drinking water using phenotypic and 16S rDNA sequence-based analysis. Water samples (n = 184) were sourced from long-haul and short-haul aircraft, the airline water source and a water service vehicle. In total, 308 isolates were characterised and their identity determined, which produced 82 identified bacterial species belonging to eight classes: γ-Proteobacteria; β-Proteobacteria; α-Proteobacteria; Bacilli; Actinobacteria; Flavobacteria; Sphingobacteria and Cytophaga. Statistical differences in bacterial diversity were found to exist across sampling locations (X2 = 39.220, p = 0.009) and furthermore, differences were observed (X2 = 15.475, p = 0.030) across aircraft type (long- or short-haul). This study demonstrates the diverse nature of microorganisms within the aircraft drinking water supply chain. To the best of our knowledge, this is the most extensive study undertaken to date of microbial diversity in aircraft drinking water.

CRITICAL ISSUES CONCERNING DRINKING WATER AND SANITATION MANAGEMENT IN VILANCULOS (MOZAMBIQUE)

The research work aimed at analysing the drinking water quality in Vilanculos (Mozambique) and at investigating the influence of poor sanitation management on drinking water quality. The purpose was to understand the reasons of water source contamination and re-contamination in the water supply chain, in order to define strategies to control source contamination and to suggest practical ways for reducing the risk of recontamination. A first phase of microbiological drinking water quality monitoring allowed identifying the most critical areas to be valued in a next sanitation assessment activity, carried out by means of interviews to stakeholders and by direct observation. The microbiological analysis carried out at the source showed that only in few cases there is compliance of water samples with the standard limit for all microbiological parameters. It was also found that the cases of compliance with the regulatory limit decrease moving from the source to the consumer, meaning improper hygiene habits in the supply chain. Microbiological contamination shows a potential danger for the health of consumers. As regards excreta and wastewater management, a prevalence of unimproved sanitation facilities with direct infiltration into the ground and a bad management of septic tanks were identified. In order to improve population s health conditions, a preventive approach should be implemented, including both the improvement of the structural characteristics of latrines and their management and the improvement of water supply infrastructures. Moreover, good practices at the household level resulted to be an important strategy to preserve water microbiological quality.

Systemic eco-efficiency assessment of industrial water use systems

Eco-efficiency can become the basis of an environmental decision making framework, towards a greener economy, by combining the economic welfare with the ecological impact of products. It has been already highlighted that a potential enhancement to the eco-efficiency of a given system may also lead to the improvement of its sustainability, if it is successfully linked with resource efficiency and eco-innovation. Thus, there is the need to develop a set of eco-efficiency indicators, for measuring the environmental and economic performance of a given system, and, more importantly, to define a range for each one of them in order to allow better interpretation of the calculated numerical values. The current paper briefly presents a systemic eco-efficiency assessment methodological framework, which is then applied to three industrial water use systems, a bottling plant, a textile dyeing industry and a dairy industrial unit, in an attempt to frame and compare the selected eco-efficiency indicators. The proposed approach captures the complexity of all interrelated aspects and each studied system includes the corresponding production chain, the water supply chain and the background system (energy, raw materials and supplementary resources production processes). The analysis does not attempt to identify the industry with the best eco-efficiency performance but to reveal the most important environmental impacts of each system through a relative comparison on eco-efficiency basis is conducted. It also provides useful insight about the weaknesses of the methodology and suggests ways to overcome them.

Prospects for Improving Gravity-Fed Surface Irrigation Systems in Mediterranean European Contexts

Traditionally, most irrigation practices in Southern Europe have been based on gravity-fed surface irrigation systems. Currently, these systems remain a relevant typology in the European Union (EU) member states of the Mediterranean areas, where it is often the only sustainable method for farmers due to the small size of agricultural holdings, their reduced capacity and readiness to invest and the low ratio between yield profits and irrigation costs. In the last several years, in response to European and national directives, surface irrigation has garnered increasing attention at the political and bureaucratic levels due to frequent criticisms of its postulated low efficiency and high water wastage. However, these systems commonly provide a number of ecosystem services and nature-based solutions that increase the positive externalities in different rural socio-ecological contexts and often have the potential to extend these services and provide solutions that are compatible with economical sustainability. This study aims to discuss the prospects for new practices and for the rehabilitation and modernization of the gravity-fed surface irrigation systems in EU Mediterranean areas to enhance water efficiency, thus gaining both economic advantages and environmental benefits. The difficulties, stimuli for improvements and peculiarities of the irrigation water management of four rural environments located in Italy, Spain and Portugal were analyzed and compared to the current state of the gravity-fed surface irrigation systems with hypothetical future improvements achievable by innovative technologies and practices. In these different case studies, the current gravity-fed surface irrigation systems have an obsolete regulatory structure; water-use efficiency is not a driving criterion for the management of the conveyance and distribution canal network, and farmers are not yet adequately encouraged to adopt more efficient gravity-fed irrigation practices. A continuous knowledge exchange is thus necessary for the interaction of all irrigation water managers and farmers to improve their eco-efficiency and to preserve and promote their cultural heritage across the entire water supply and delivery chains. We argue that the best way forward will require precisely targeted rehabilitation measures of gravity-fed surface irrigation systems based on the integrated use of decision support services, gate automation, remote and feedback controls and real-time flow optimization.

Comparative assessment of green supply chain management (GSCM) in drinking water service industry in Lao PDR, Thailand, and South Korea

The industrial manufacturing of a commodity as well as service sectors, such as drinking water supply systems, is responsible for environmental impacts across its supply chain. Lowering these impacts at each stage of the supply chain is often termed green supply chain management (GSCM). This study assesses energy use, waste generation, chemical use, consumptive water use, and GHG emissions in typical drinking water treatment plant (WTP) operations in Lao PDR, Thailand, and South Korea and consolidates these supply chain impacts broadly into water footprint (WF) and carbon footprint (CF). The respective CFs were found to be 9.4, 375.4, and 359.5g CO2-eq, while the respective WFs were 335.4, 501.4, and 300.4 L/m3. Among the three countries of the study, only South Korea has implemented various greening activities, such as energy management systems, sludge reuse, GHG target management, and renewable energy development, for meeting its strict government policy and regulations. WTPs in Lao PDR and Thailand, however, have yet to implement GSCM strategies and policies. This study instigates best practices for “greening” the drinking water supply chain in the region.

A capacity expansion planning model for integrated water desalination and power supply chain problem

Cogeneration of water and power in integrated cogeneration production plants is a common practice in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) countries. There are several combinations of water desalination and power technologies which give significant adverse environmental impact. Renewable and alternative energy technologies have been recently proposed as alternative power production paths in the water and power sector. In this study, we examine the optimal capacity expansion of water and power infrastructure over an extended planning horizon. A generic mixed integer linear programming model is developed to assist in the decision making process on: (1) optimal installation of cogeneration expansion capacities; (2) optimal installation of renewable and alternative power plants; (3) optimal operation of the integrated water and power supply chain over large geographical areas. Furthermore, the model considers the installation of carbon capture methods in fossil-based power plants. A case study will be presented to illustrate the mathematical programming application for the Emirate of Abu Dhabi (AD) in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The case study is solved reflecting different scenarios: base case scenario, integration of renewable and alternative technologies scenario, and CO2 reduction targets scenario. The results show that increased carbon tax values up to 150$/ton-CO2 gives a maximum 3% cost increase for the supply chain net present value. The installation of carbon capture methods is not an economical solution due to its high operation energy requirements in the order of 370kWh per ton of captured CO2. Thus, the Cplex solver in GAMS chooses optimal solutions without installation of carbon capture processes. In addition, higher degree of alternative and renewable energy technologies penetration within the energy mix reduces the overall net present value of the network, and the carbon emissions by 40%, and 12%, respectively.