Alternative Water Supply Research Articles

Seasonal Variations of some Physico-chemical Properties of Drinking Water in Akre District, Kurdistan Region – Iraq

Drinking water considers one of the main concerns in most developing countries. The current study aimed to evaluate the quality of drinking water in Akre district, Kurdistan Region – Iraq in four different seasons, and to compare them with WHO standards. Drinking water samples were collected from seven densely populated quarters of the city. The samples were analyzed for their physico-chemical and heavy metal quality. Physico-chemical parameters were temperature, turbidity, Electrical conductivity “EC”, pH, Total Dissolved Solids “TDS”, Chlorine “Cl- ”, Sulphate “SO4-2”, Nitrate “NO3”, Sodium “Na+”, Zinc “Zn”, Copper “Cu”, total alkalinity, total hardness, Cadmium “Cd” and Plumbum “Pb”. These are indications of polluted water and weak treatment practice, which in turn will cause many human health problems. The results from this study showed that almost all the water samples were normal in compare to the WHO guidelines, except for the total alkalinity, total hardness, Cd and Pb, were showed to be higher than WHO standards in some locations. Therefore, the study recommends the city authorities to improve their drinking water treatment or use alternative water supply to have a better drinking water.

Stable Isotopes and Water Level Monitoring Integrated to Characterize Groundwater Recharge in the Pra Basin, Ghana

In the Pra Basin of Ghana, groundwater is increasingly becoming the alternative water supply due to the continual pollution of surface water resources through illegal mining and indiscriminate waste discharges into rivers. However, our understanding of hydrogeology and the dynamics of groundwater quality remains inadequate, posing challenges for sustainable water resource management. This study aims to characterize groundwater recharge by determining its origin and mechanism of recharge prior to entering the saturated zone and to provide spatial estimates of groundwater recharge using stable isotopes and water level measurements relevant to groundwater management in the basin. Ninety (90) water samples (surface water and groundwater) were collected to determine stable isotope ratios of oxygen (δ18O) and hydrogen (δ2H) and chloride concentration. In addition, ten boreholes were installed with automatic divers to collect time series data on groundwater levels for the 2022 water year. The Chloride Mass Balance (CMB) and the Water Table Fluctuation (WTF) methods were employed to estimate the total amount and spatial distribution of groundwater recharge for the basin. Analysis of the stable isotope data shows that the surface water samples in the Pra Basin have oxygen (δ18O) and hydrogen (δ2H) isotope ratios ranging from −2.8 to 2.2‰ vrs V-SMOW for δ18O and from −9.4 to 12.8‰ vrs V-SMOW for δ2H, with a mean of −0.9‰ vrs V-SMOW and 0.5‰ vrs V-SMOW, respectively. Measures in groundwater ranges from −3.0 to −1.5‰ vrs V-SMOW for δ18O and from −10.4 to −2.4‰ vrs V-SMOW for δ2H, with a mean of −2.3 and −7.0‰ vrs V-SMOW, respectively. The water in the Pra Basin originates from meteoric source. Groundwater has a relatively depleted isotopic signature compared to surface water due to the short residence time of infiltration within the extinction depth of evaporation in the vadose zone. Estimated evaporative losses in the catchment range from 51 to 77%, with a mean of 62% for surface water and from 55 to 61% with a mean of 57% for groundwater, respectively. Analysis of the stable isotope data and water level measurements suggests a potential hydraulic connection between surface water and groundwater. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that the isotopes of groundwater have comparatively lower values than surface water. Furthermore, the observation that the groundwater level remains constant in months with lower rainfall further supports this conclusion. The estimated annual groundwater recharge in the catchment ranges from 9 to 667 mm (average 165 mm) and accounts for 0.6% to 33.5% (average 10.7%) of mean annual precipitation. The total estimated mean recharge for the study catchment is 228 M m3, higher than the estimated total surface water use for the entire Pra Basin of 144 M m3 for 2010, indicating vast groundwater potential. Overall, our study provides a novel insight into the recharge mechanism and spatial quantification of groundwater recharge, which can be used to constrain groundwater flow and hydrogeochemical evolution models, which are crucial for effective groundwater management within the framework of the Pra Basin’s Integrated Water Resources Management Plan.

Households’ willingness to pay for water for the environment in an urban setting

Continued population growth, and climate change are placing stress on many of the world's water sources and this often manifests in environmental damage to rivers and wetlands. Most of the published literature around allocating more water to the environment considers trade-offs with agriculture. In contrast this study focusses on scenarios for different potable water supplies in cities and thus adds a novel perspective on the value of riverine restoration. This study sheds light on urban households' willingness to pay for more water to be allocated to the environment where it directly competes with their own water demands. The study uses two stated preference techniques (choice modelling and best-worst scaling) to establish the value of environmental water and the motivations for households paying for an increase in environmental water reserves. The study is set in Australia's fastest growing city, Melbourne, although the approach and method have implications for other developed-world settings. The paper also offers practical advice on the management of water allocated for different uses. Overall, the results indicate a positive and significant willingness to pay by households for additional water entitlements. Importantly, this provides a benchmark for contemplating the costs and benefits of activating alternative water supplies, such as desalination, to free up rainwater for environmental purposes.

Tapping Tomorrow: Houston's Water Prospects for the Next Century

Key TakeawaysAfter long‐term groundwater pumping increased subsidence‐related flood risk in Houston, the Texas legislature created subsidence districts to manage groundwater use.Reducing groundwater pumping requires alternative water supplies (AWSs) to meet current and future water demands.An assessment of AWS options in the Houston area determined that potential supplies should be more than ample to meet anticipated growth and demand.

Rainwater Harvesting System (RWHS) for buildings: A mini review on guidelines and potential as alternative water supply in Malaysia

Malaysia receives an abundance of rain annually (≈ 2400mm/year). The country, however, is not excused from water crises such as floods and water shortages. According to the National Water Services Commission (SPAN) data, Malaysia water consumption in year 2021 is 201 LCD and may encounter a water shortage crisis if the situation is not improved in the future. Rainwater harvesting (RWHS) has great potential in tackling water shortages. It can also combat water scarcity holistically and reduce dependency on treated water from dam reservoirs. RWHS is a sustainable alternative to tackle water crises with minimal environmental impact. Currently RWHS used for non-potable purposes like cleaning, toilet flushing, and irrigation. Due to the nature of the catchment area, there are several ways in which contaminants can enter the rainwater system and compromise the water quality. Elements such as topography, weather, and pollution sources, have a direct impact on the quality of rainwater that is collected and stored. In addition to the non-potable uses, RWH has been used for potable water in countries such as Australia and Bangladesh, but the total number of uses is still very small. For potable use, regular monitoring is required because it poses a health risk due to the presence of chemical, physical, and microbiological contaminants. If the water quality parameters meet the acceptable levels of water supply, harvested rainwater could be used for drinking purposes in many countries in the future. To ensure consistently good water quality, it is essential to establish standard operating procedures and maintenance schedules based on water safety plan approaches for both household and institutional users. This paper aims to review existing management guidelines and explore potential technologies for rainwater harvesting in buildings across Malaysia.

Ecocriminological analysis of brine in aquatic ecosystems: impacts on Posidonia oceanica and the search for restorative justice solutions

The consumption of fresh water has generated additional problems in certain territories, along with the consequences of global warming. This has meant that, in the most vulnerable areas, such as the Balearic archipelago in the Mediterranean, alternative water supply systems have been established: desalination plants. However, the ecological impact of these infrastructures is great, mainly affecting aquatic ecosystems. In the light of the above, this paper addresses the ecological harm caused by desalination and brine discharges on a protected and priority species, Posidonia oceanica. For this and taking as ethical-legal foundation the theory of ecological justice, a multilevel analysis was carried out from an ecocriminology perspective on the impacts of this authorized practice on Posidonia and other species. Finally, a restorative justice view will allow us to understand and envision possible solutions to this ecological harm.

Three-way group decision based on regret theory under dual hesitant fuzzy environment: An application in water supply alternatives selection

For actual multi-criteria group decision-making (MCGDM) issues with complexity and uncertainty, decision-makers may not be completely rational, and the psychological characteristics generally exert influences on the decision process. As an effective cognitive model, three-way decision (TWD) dedicates to handling uncertainty and is widely used in distinct fields. In this regard, this study incorporates regret emotion into TWD in the dual hesitant fuzzy (DHF) context, and accordingly designs a decision model for uncertain MCGDM issues considering bounded rationality. Specifically, by means of distance measures and score functions of dual hesitant fuzzy elements (DHFEs), the calculation method of loss functions and conditional probability are proposed firstly. Meanwhile, drawing from regret theory, the TWD rules considering regret emotion are generated under the DHF environment. Further, based on this, a detailed three-way group decision model based on regret theory, aimed at solving MCGDM problems under DHF uncertainty, water supply alternatives selection, is constructed. Lastly, a numerical example is employed to elaborate the application of the model.

Effect of Zeolux and Filters Backwash Water (FBWW) on Plant Growth and Yield of Sage (Salvia Officinalis) Plant

<p>Jordan is one of the few countries with constricted water resources, having one of the lowest per capita water levels in the world (Ministry of Agriculture, 2015). Jordan's available water resources per person are predicted to fall from less than 160 m3/capita/year to roughly 90 m3/capita/year by 2025, placing the nation in the acute water shortage category. Massive volumes of filter backwash water (FBWW) are created and wasted in Jordan. The use of FBWW to Sage (Salvia Officinalis) plant germination under controlled conditions with various dilution treatments would reduce water waste while also providing an alternate irrigation water supply. The effects of Zeolux as a soil amendment on the productivity and a variety of agronomic parameters of a Sage (Salvia officinalis) irrigated with fresh and FBWW were also studied. Various clay-zeolux mixtures were tested to achieve this goal. The combination soil mix of 25% zeolux and 75% clay watered with FBWW had the greatest results in terms of plant height, number of branches, fresh weight, dry weight, and root dry weight. The results reveal that the addition of zeolux to clay enhanced the yield and agrarian characteristics of plants cultivated in the soil. The results demonstrate that employing FBWW increased plant growth features greatly, and zeolux increases the favorable impact of FBWW irrigation on plant output. The study's main results will help to preserve valuable drinking water supplies while also increasing the yield of irrigated plants by using treated FBWW for irrigation.</p>

Determinants of rainwater harvesting practices in rural communities of Limpopo Province, South Africa

ABSTRACT Most rural parts of South Africa’s Limpopo Province are faced with limited water access, provision, and inadequate infrastructure for water reticulation. With over 80% of the provincial population living in rural areas, water availability for domestic and agricultural use has become a source of concern. Rainwater harvesting (RWH) has emerged as an important source of alternative water supply for underserved communities during the summer rainfall season. RWH refers to the collection, storage and conservation of surface runoff for agricultural production and domestic uses. This study assessed the socio-economic characteristics and determinants of RWH practices in rural communities of Limpopo Province. Descriptive statistics were used to describe households’ socio-economic characteristics and logistic regression was used to examine the determinants of RWH practices in rural communities. The analysis was based on a survey of 478 households selected using convenience and purposive sampling techniques. The key findings indicate that a significant number of households (63.8%) practised RWH to augment available water for domestic use, albeit few households used the harvested water for portable use. Further analysis showed that a majority of those who adopted RWH practices were female (64.24%). The results of the empirical models indicate that there is a statistically significant positive relationship between perception, age and level of education in determining the adoption of RWH practices. The findings underline the importance of understanding the adoption of RWH in rural communities and highlight the vital role of education, knowledge, and income in rural communities with limited or no access to a water supply. The study highlights the need for policy to promote the benefits of harvesting rainwater for domestic use.

Revisiting recycled water for the next drought; a case study of South East Queensland, Australia

Australia has long been observed to experience the ENSO (El Niño Southern Oscillation) of periodic alternation of flooding and drought. Australia has experienced consecutive years of the La Niña cycle of heavy rain and flooding. At some stage, this will revert to one or more years of drought, often severe. In previous years of drought, consideration was given to alternative water supply, including recycled wastewater. This paper reflects on the case of the previous period of El Niño drought in South East Queensland (SEQ), aiming to contribute to drought mitigation planning through reviving consideration of recycled water.

English

Drinking water quality is a critical factor affecting human health particularly in natural resource-dependent countries including Nigeria. Hydrocarbon related pollution, mining waste, microbial load, industrial discharge and other anthropogenic stressors degrade drinking water quality in coastal communities and pose serious public health and ecological risks. This study evaluated the physicochemical properties of drinking water in selected communities (Okerenkoko, Kurutie, and Oporoza) located in Gbaramatu Kingdom, in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria, in order to assess the water quality using the Water Quality Index (WQI) and pollution models. Nitrate, Chromium, Cadmium, Copper, Lead, Aluminium, pH, Total Hardness, Total Dissolved Solids, Cyanide, and Residual Chlorine were measured in twelve selected locations across the three communities.  The WQI results of the analyzed water samples in the area indicated that they exceeded the critical WQI value of 100, with a mean pH of 8.11 ± 0.32, indicating unsuitability for consumption. Nickel ranging from 0.014 to 0.176 mg/L and residual chlorine 11.6 to 7407 mg/L were the major contributors to the degradation of water quality and exceeded the WHO recommended limit of 0.02 and 0.25 respectively. While groundwater had better organoleptic properties compared to surface and rain water, the geo-accumulation index showed that water sources in the area vary from moderately to heavily contaminated with Ni and Cd. These WQI and pollution model results necessitate an urgent response from local stakeholders to address the water quality deterioration, such as providing alternative water supplies, to minimize the potential health risks to the local population.   Key words: Water quality index, contamination index, oil pollution, chemical parameters, geo-accumulation index.

Hydrometeorological data analysis: a case of study of Ejido La Providencia, Saltillo, Coahuila

In Saltillo, Coahuila de Zaragoza, there are places such as La Providencia common land county, that are considered arid or semi-arid places, where drought is a solid problem. There are water supply alternatives for domestic use such as rainwater systems and atmospheric-water collectors, however, weather conditions are variable and extreme, therefore, it is necessary to collect and to analyze meteorological data in the area. In this work, the precipitation and humidity of the area have been analyzed, finding potential on specific dates of the year to taken as departure to start with water storage systems develop.

Frac Sand Facilities and Their Potential Effects on the Groundwater Resources of the Monahans-Mescalero Sand Ecosystem, Permian Basin, Texas

Up until the end of the oil and gas boom in 2014, much of the sand used in the Permian Basin for hydraulic fracturing was sourced from upper Midwest of the United States. Because of substantial cost savings, producers in the Permian Basin began using local sand resources, creating an associated boom in local frac-sand mining in the Monahans-Mescalaro Sand Ecosystem. By December 2018, 17 frac-sand operations had registered with the Texas Commission on Environmental Quality with 16 being operational with a cumulative annual capacity of 56.8 million tons and a self-reported 2,927 acres of disturbed land. We identified 230 production wells for the 16 facilities with depths ranging from 80 to 1,199 feet and most completed in the Pecos Valley Alluvium and/or Dockum aquifers. Estimated frac sand facility water use (10,000 to 40,000 acre-feet per year, based on 60 to 250 gallons of water consumed per ton of produced sand) rivals or exceeds that of water used in the four counties (Crane, Ector, Ward, and Winkler) with active frac sand facilities (23,500 acre-feet per year). Modeling suggests that long-term pumping of the unconfined Pecos Valley Aquifer may be a challenge requiring additional wells over time or the use of alternative water supplies. For the confined Dockum Aquifer, simulations suggest that pumping might completely deplete artesian pressure at the well field after 10 years.

Revealing community capacity for applying rain water harvesting in Semarang coastal areas

ABSTRACT Public participation is essential in integrated water management, including in the implementation of rainwater harvesting (RWH). RWH is an alternative water supply generation method that can be implemented at the household level. Residents in drought-prone areas with a lack of water supplies system who rely on private vendors for clean water provision may utilise this method. However, it is difficult to encourage the community to apply RWH because of socio-economic constraints. Therefore, this study aims to analyse the willingness and ability of a community in the Semarang coastal areas to apply RWH. The research was done through quantitative method by distributing questionnaires to 96 respondents to determine their knowledge, ability, and willingness to implement RWH. Rainwater potential was calculated by comparing the maximum volume of rainwater that can be captured annually to the volume of water demand. The estimated results were communicated to the community members and we further explore their responses to comprehend the possibility and advantages of applying RWH. Factors that influence community capacity were also analysed through factor analysis. The community members emphasized that the high cost of adopting RWH is the main reason they object to the idea. In addition, there are also health concern that make the community refuse to use RWH. Therefore, RWH implementation requires both support from the government and collective participation of community leaders as role models.

Techno-economic analysis of the water, energy, and greenhouse gas emissions impacts from the adoption of water efficiency practices in the U.S. manufacturing sector

Water is a critical resource for all of manufacturing. As such, mitigating risks to the supply of water to manufacturing plants facilitates maintaining a vital manufacturing sector. Reductions in water use through water efficiency is one method for mitigating risk, however little is known about its potential in the United States (U.S.) manufacturing sector. Herein, we address this gap and calculate the water reduction potential in U.S. manufacturing from commercially available water efficiency opportunities specific to the manufacturing sector. A list of water efficiency measures specific to the manufacturing sector is compiled and applied to estimates of U.S. manufacturing water withdrawals. The energy and carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) emission impacts from implementation of these measures are also quantified to better inform the resource, environmental, and economic trade-offs from implementation of these measures. We find that the water savings potential from the evaluated measures is up to 60 percent of U.S. manufacturing water withdrawal for certain subsectors, with the energy and emissions impact dependent on the measure. Further, we calculate the levelized cost of conserved water for several water efficiency measures (-$4,000 to $85/thousand m3, where negative values indicate net cost savings and positive values indicate net cost expenditures) and compare them to the levelized cost of alternative water sources ($600 to $3,400/thousand m3). The results show significant opportunities for water and energy use reductions at levelized costs at least one order of magnitude lower than alternative water supplies, with some being revenue-generating.

Characterization of segregated greywater from rural Indian Households: An instrumental case study

Over the past few decades, greywater has gained attention on a global scale as a practical alternative water supply. Greywater reuse and recycling is a financially sound and appealing solution for fulfilling future water demand. The reuse and treatment of grey water are based on the parameters such as BOD, pH, EC, turbidity, suspended solids, and other factors. The current investigative study is primarily concerned with describing segregated grey wastewater (bathroom, laundry, and kitchen) from diverse rural families and based on the socio-economic classes of staff members who live in the rural area of Karunya Nagar. The indicators examined showed considerable differences across different economic classes, according to statistical analysis. The results of the current study demonstrated that household habits, activities, and wastewater sources all have a significant impact on the characteristics of greywater. This research will be useful in developing a sustainable, cost-effective treatment system that will allow homeowners to safely recycle and reuse greywater produced by various sources. Emerging contaminants pose a great threat to human health. In light of this, the current study concentrates on qualitative and quantitative evaluations of emerging pollutants from several rural Indian household classes using gas chromatography mass spectroscopy(GC–MS) and high-performance liquid chromatography(HPLC).

Analysis of Architectural Needs for Passive Low-Tech Fog and Dew Collector Building Design: A Narrative Literature Review

Global warming and climate change have negative effects on life on earth. One of the consequences is a water crisis or water scarcity, both in quantity and quality. Indonesia also cannot avoid this problem. Therefore it is necessary to prepare an alternative water supply solution, one of which is from water vapor (atmospheric water), especially in the form of dew and fog. This study aimed to formulate the design requirements for passive low-tech dew and fog collector building by comparing several technologies and projects in the world that have been realized recently that have a relationship with architectural science. This research used qualitative research with a narrative literature review approach. This research produced design requirements in the form of principles and technical requirements in designing and realizing dew and fog collector building, especially in terms of function, construction, and appearance.Keywords: dew collector, fog collector, low-tech, water scarcity, architecture

Pathways to water resilient South African cities – from mono-functional to multi-functional stormwater infrastructure

In light of rapid population growth and climate-change pressures on water resources, there is an urgent need in many African cities to shift to more resilient, decentralised, nature-based approaches. In response, the City of Cape Town's Water Strategy document proposes various alternative water supply sources. One is Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) using the Cape Flats Aquifer (CFA). Overlying the CFA are a significant number of stormwater ponds that were originally designed solely to prevent flooding. These ponds could be retrofitted to infiltrate stormwater run-off, recharging the aquifer and serving a water treatment function using nature-based approaches. Many of these mono-functional ponds are in neighbourhoods that are socio-economically disadvantaged through former apartheid spatial planning. These ponds are frequently litter-filled, used for dumping rubble and, on occasion, occupied with informal housing. It is in this context that the conversion of engineered single-purpose stormwater ponds into multi-functional space is proposed using a demonstration site in Mitchells Plain, Cape Town. The ‘Pathways to water resilient South African cities (PaWS)’ project is a collaboration between the Future Water Institute at the University of Cape Town (UCT) and University of Copenhagen (UCPH), funded through DANIDA. This research is revealing how maximum benefit could be derived from these water management systems by adopting low-cost, easy to install blue-green interventions that rely on nature-based approaches. The findings from the research have relevance across Southern Africa where several large cities have existing stormwater ponds designed for flood control or as passive open green spaces. It offers valuable strategies for how these single-purpose ponds can be transformed into multifunctional blue-green spaces in ways that build resilience while addressing the environmental injustice that is a legacy of South Africa's ‘green apartheid’.

Adaptation and Resilience

In times of social and environmental changes, water and wastewater utilities provide the foundations for their communities so they can focus on growing and improving. But to remain (or become) sustainable, utilities must themselves grow and improve, and they can do so generally through two approaches: adaptation and resilience. If the wind blows harder, the reed can either adapt to bend more easily, or it can grow stronger and bury its roots deeper to resist breaking. Water systems are unique in that they can use both approaches at the same time, strengthening certain areas of management and operations, while others evolve in response to new perspectives and technologies. Highlighting areas of sustainable water management, this month's Journal AWWA has articles on resource management, source water protection, and the development of alternative supplies and partnerships. Partnerships and collaboration can further a utility's sustainability goals. Our cover story focuses on one example of this—when Des Moines Water Works faced significant source water quality challenges, its utility staff adapted by collaborating with a range of organizations to better protect its water supplies and ultimately its customers. Another article shows how improving water reliability in Washington's South Puget Sound helped aquatic species and increased community water resilience; the complex financial and permitting issues related to a fish passage facility and an additional water supply project were ultimately overcome by collaborating with like-minded organizations to build widespread support. Focusing more on novel technologies and approaches, another story this month shows how utilities can protect their customers and water distribution system operations by using the US Environmental Protection Agency's EPANET program to model water age. The model results can help utilities adapt how they design, operate, and optimize their distribution systems. The final feature in this month's issue describes how utilities need advanced technologies and new analytical approaches to develop alternative water supplies. As more utilities incorporate reverse osmosis in their treatment processes, advanced membrane forensics can identify the causes of membrane fouling, assess membrane condition, and determine ways to optimize the system to improve resilience and save money. This issue demonstrates how the principles of sustainable water are reflected in practice around the industry. But as all these examples show, water systems have a never-ending responsibility to their communities, and continuity and dedication are necessary to make them sustainable now and in the future. Taking a holistic approach by collaborating across an entire community benefits everyone. Join in the collaboration and share your innovative projects or sustainable approaches. Consider writing an article for Journal AWWA by contacting me at journaleditor@awwa.org.

Method for quantitatively assessing the impact of an inter-basin water transfer project on ecological environment-power generation in a water supply region

To tackle ever-changing global water problems, inter-basin water transfer (IBWT) projects provide water supply alternatives for water-scarce regions and create potential risks for water-supply regions. To analyze the multiple interrelated impacts of IBWT projects on supply regions, in this study, we establish a cascade multi-objective complementary optimal scheduling model and apply the model to the water supply regions of the west route of China’s South-North Water Transfer Project and the Dadu-Minjiang Water Transfer Project. With the goal of fully utilizing water resources to gain comprehensive benefits, we objectively and quantitatively evaluate the impacts of IBWT projects on the ecology and hydropower generation of water supply regions. To reduce the complexity of solving the model, the model is decomposed into a two-stage optimization model and is solved with particle swarm optimization and fuzzy optimization. The results show that: (1) The multi-objective model that simultaneously considers minimal ecological water shortage degree, maximal power generation, and the maximization of the annual minimum output is more conducive to the full utilization of water resources. (2) The factors affecting the ecological flow, the power generation and its structure in the water supply region, and the annual minimum output are different. (3) To deal with risks, the upstream power station in the water supply region is controlled to meet the ecological needs as the primary goal, and the downstream power station is mainly responsible for the task of compensating and adjusting the output gap during the dry season. This study can provide technical support for the demonstration and decision-making of IBWT projects, and it explores the ideas of water resource planning and management.