Water Storage Structures Research Articles

Long-term variations in water storage in Peninsular Malaysia

AbstractInformation on ongoing climate change impacts on water availability is limited for Asian regions, particularly for Peninsular Malaysia. Annual flash floods are common during peak monsoon seasons, while the dry seasons are hit by droughts, leading to socio-economic stress. This study, for the first time, analyzed the long-term trends (14 years, from 2002 to 2014) in terrestrial water storage and groundwater storage for Peninsular Malaysia, using Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment data. Results indicate a decline in net terrestrial and groundwater storage over the last decade. Spatially, the northern regions are more affected by droughts, while the southern regions have more flash floods. Groundwater storage trends show strong correlations to the monsoon seasons, indicating that most of the shallow aquifer groundwater is used. Results also indicate that, with proper planning and management, excess monsoon/flash flood water can be stored in water storage structures up to the order of 87 billion liters per year. This can help in dry season water distribution and water transfer projects. Findings from this study can expand the understanding of ongoing climate change impacts on groundwater storage and terrestrial water storage, and can lead to better management of water resources in Peninsular Malaysia.

Assessment of sedimentation in Pong and Bhakra reservoirs in Himachal Pradesh, India, using geospatial technique

All water storage structures constructed on natural rivers are subjected to reservoir sedimentation. The reservoir sedimentation is filling of the reservoir behind a dam with sediment carried into the reservoir by streams. The sediment particles which originate from erosion processes in the catchment are propagated along with the river flow. When the flow of a river is stored in a reservoir, the sediment settled down in the reservoir and reduces its capacity. Decrease in the storage capacity of a reservoir beyond a limit hampers the purpose for which it was constructed. Therefore, assessment of sediment deposition becomes very important for the management and operation of such reservoirs. Some conventional methods, such as hydrographic survey and inflow-outflow approaches, are being used to estimate the sediment deposition in a reservoir, but these methods are tedious, time-consuming and costly. Consequently, in this study, a remote sensing data based digital image processing technique was used to assess the sedimentation in Pong and Bhakra reservoirs, located in foothill of Western Himalayas, India. Seven dates of IRS-(P6) LISS-III satellite data from maximum to minimum reservoir level were used to assess temporal and spatial patterns of reservoirs. The water spread areas of the reservoirs were assessed by using a band rationing technique i.e. Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI). Furthermore, the revised capacities of the reservoirs between minimum and maximum levels were computed using the trapezoidal formula. From the analysis, it has been observed that the live storage capacity of Pong Reservoir, due to sedimentation, was estimated as 632.84Mm3 in last 35 years (1974–2009), whereas it was determined as 802.34Mm3 for Bhakra reservoir in the span of 46 years (1963–2009). Further, the sedimentation rate in the Pong reservoir was calculated as 18.08Mm3/year, while for the Bhakra reservoir it was 17.46Mm3/year. These sedimentation rates are comparable with the hydrographic survey analysis.

Can Intermediate Water Storage Structures Mitigate Impact of Climate Variability? Some Evidence from Tank Command Areas in Southern India

This paper examines whether intermediate water storage structures (farm ponds) would be a better adaptation strategy in the light of climate variability in irrigation tank commands. The study was conducted in two tanks, Pramanur tank and Kovanur tank, in Sivagangai district of Tamil Nadu state, India. To assess the impacts of farm ponds as an adaptation strategy, a sample of 30 farmers in each tank, was selected using a simple random sampling procedure. To make a comparative analysis, an equal number of farmers who do not have access to farm ponds were also studied. Thus, a sample of 120 farmers was studied. It is found that farm ponds play a crucial role in supplementing tank irrigation and help the farmers in achieving better yields. The farm ponds are found to be effective, particularly when farms depend entirely on tank water. The net profit realised from the construction and use of farm ponds is Rs.5383/ha/year. Thus, we can conclude that farm ponds are effective in mitigating climate variability in water-scarce tank command regions. Technical support in water management and cultivation of crops, cropping pattern and crop allocation advice will help farmers better cope with climate variability.

Current and future groundwater withdrawals: Effects, management and energy policy options for a semi-arid Indian watershed

Effects of future expansion/intensification of irrigated agriculture on groundwater and surface water levels and availability in a semi-arid watershed were evaluated using an integrated hydrologic model (MIKE SHE/MIKE 11) in conjunction with biophysical measurements. Improved water use efficiency, water storage, and energy policy options were evaluated for their ability to sustain the future (2035) increased groundwater withdrawals. Three future withdrawal scenarios (low = 20, medium = 30, high = 50 wells/100 km2/year) based on the historical rate of growth of irrigation wells were formulated. While well drying from falling groundwater levels was limited to drought and consecutive below average rainfall years, under the current (2015) withdrawals, significant increases in frequency and duration (17–97 days/year) of well drying along with 13–26% (19–37 mm) reductions in surface flows were predicted under the future withdrawals. Higher (27–108%) energy demands of existing irrigation pumps due to declining groundwater levels and reduced hydroelectric generation due to decreased surface flows would create a vicious water-food-energy nexus in the future. Crop failure, one of the main causes of farmers’ emotional distress and death in the region, is predicted to exacerbate under the future withdrawal scenarios. Shift to negative net recharge (−63 mm) and early and prolonged drying of wells under the high scenario will reduce the groundwater availability and negatively affect crop production in more than 60% and 90% of cropped areas in the Rabi (November–February) and summer (March–May) seasons, respectively during a drought year. Individual and combined demand (drip irrigation and reduced farm electricity subsidy) and supply (water storage) management options improved groundwater levels and reduced well drying by 55–97 days/year compared to business-as-usual management under the high scenario. The combined management (50% drip conversion, 50% reduction in subsidy, and enhanced water storage) mitigated well drying even during drought and consecutive below average rainfall years under the high scenario. A conservative economic evaluation for management options under the high scenario showed increases in crop production and per farmer annual profits by $987–$1397 during a drought year (average household income = $1520/year). A scale-up of results showed that diverting 50% state power subsidy ($6 billion for 3–6 years) can almost entirely fund the conversion to drip irrigation ($4.2 billion) and water storage structures ($2.9 billion) and help meet the water supply demand of a 50% increase in irrigated area under the high scenario. Converting flood to drip irrigation in 50% of irrigated area under the high scenario can reduce the electric energy consumption (7 × 106Mwh/year) and carbon footprint (6000 Mt/year) of groundwater irrigation by 24% in the state. Management options considered can potentially create a sustainable water-food-energy nexus in the larger semi-arid hard rock region. Reducing the power subsidy will require a strong political will since it has been used as a tool to win the elections in India. Considering future agricultural intensification, timely interventions are needed to ensure the livelihood and well-being of millions of small- and medium-scale farmers that rely on low storage, hard rock aquifers in the semi-arid regions of the world.

Effect of water storage structures on groundwater recharge in India

Soil and water conservation works were taken up in Bajni watershed in Bundelkhand region of India. Two water storage structures, viz. Dharam talaiya and percolation pond were monitored daily for six years to assess their effect on groundwater recharge. Forty observation wells, well distributed around the two water harvesting structures were monitored fortnightly for the below-groundwater levels. Water from fifteen wells were sampled before and after monsoon for analysis of chemical properties. Results were used to develop chemical fingerprints of the groundwater quality. Potential recharge characteristics of the water harvesting structures were computed using the storage volume fluctuation technique. Perusal of data reveals that water table declined by a minimum of 3–4m during six years, due to droughts (2004-07) and excessive withdrawal of groundwater for drinking and irrigation. The amount of rainfall required to trigger 1mm recharge was determined as 90.2 and 260.2mm in Dharam talaiya and the percolation pond, respectively. The data revealed the recharge efficacy and design efficiency of both storage structures. While Dharam talaiya has a better recharge efficacy, the percolation pond was better designed. The groundwater of the region belongs to the class: Ca-HCO3 – shallow fresh water during pre-monsoon and to the mixed category of Ca-Na-HCO3 during post monsoon as indicated by factor analysis, and Piper tri-linear and Gibb's plots. All wells seem to belong to same aquifer as corroborated from chemical fingerprinting, however the transmissivity is low. Groundwater is suitable for irrigation as residual sodium carbonate is within the threshold limits. Further, there is an improvement in groundwater quality, more so during high rainfall due to recharge, which confirms the connectivity of the aquifer.

Temporal and spatial variability of ground level atmospheric methane concentrations in the Ebro River Delta

Deltas provide many worthy ecosystem services. Yet, delta basins are quite vulnerable, especially in the face of climate change, which can affect the outcome of both agriculture and biodiversity. Moreover, rice paddy cultivation is well known to contribute with strong emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs), such as methane (CH4). Thus, knowing the atmospheric variability of CH4 in relation to the different stages of the rice culture cycle could help to improve GHGs' mitigation strategies in deltas.The Ebro River Delta, in the northwestern Mediterranean basin, forms part of the largest Spanish river basin and is mainly covered by rice fields. In this study, for the first time, ground level (40 cm a.g.l.) atmospheric CH4 concentrations have been monitored in this area, through twenty-seven car mobile transects, over the course of one year. Seasonal, diurnal and spatial variability of CH4 concentrations were studied to identify its relationship with rice cultivation, meteorological conditions and land-use distribution.With regard to seasonal variability, autumn transects showed the highest mean values for atmospheric CH4 (2.466 ppm) when dead rice straw is mixed with the sediment, and weed growth is prevented. Spring and summer measurements gave the highest mean CH4 values at dawn (1.897–3.544 ppm), whereas autumn and winter produced the mean values after sunset (2.148–2.930 ppm). Spatial differences were accounted for by proximity to urban areas, presence of shallow water storage structures, and distance to seawater.

Revival of Hauz Khas Lake in Delhi: Approaches to Urban Water Resource Management in India

<p>The decline of urban water bodies in India needs to be arrested for sustainable water management in rapidly expanding Indian cities. Reuse of water after partial recycling can reduce environmental stress. Delhi, the Indian capital, has a number of surviving water storage structures built by successive rulers over centuries to tackle water shortage in the summer. In modern Delhi, a fourteen million plus city, water is supplied through technological networks, hastening the decline of the old water storage structures. The old lakes are choked with filth and the step-wells are heaps of rubble. The Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH) and the Delhi Development Authority (DDA) have undertaken a project to revive a 700 year-old water body, lying dry for decades, the Hauz Khas Lake, with treated sewage water. The idea was to raise the groundwater table and restore the natural environment of the lake, a past habitat for water birds. This paper attempts to evaluate the immediate impact and the long-term sustainability of the effort through discussions with technical personnel, field observations and interviews with local residents. Manuals and progress reports of the concerned organizations are used as secondary sources. The paper also examines the views of government officials and NGOs regarding the role of other similar projects in alleviating Delhi’s water shortage.</p>

Development of an analytical function for optimizing the capacity of spring water storage structure

Now, there is no doubt that the Greater Himalayan region is facing the impact of climate change and that is specifically visible through the noticeable changes in the discharging patterns of the springs from the last four to five decades. Either the springs have become seasonal or their discharge rates (particularly during recession periods) have diminished to significant extent. In this changing scenario, the long-term survival of the inhabitants in the region vests in the adaption of suitable water management practices; and the most feasible option is to reserve the water stock when it is in excess during monsoon/post-monsoon season. However, the construction/purchase of water storage structure may become highly uneconomical for below mid-class families if the selected capacity of the structure is more than optimal. On the contrary, the undersized (than optimal capacity) will fail to serve its purpose. Thus, for accurately optimizing the capacity of water storage structure, an analytical function has been proposed in the present study. The application of the proposed function has been demonstrated by considering the realistic number of dependents on a western-Himalayan gravity spring named ‘Fakua’. The analyses show that with increase in the water shortage period, per cent reduction in the optimized storage from the actual demand decreases and this particular behavior depends on the spring discharge rate during recession period. With the use of formulated analytical function, the available discharge from the spring during recession period can be managed much more efficiently and economically in comparison to other flow mass curve methods.

Comparison of Stochastic Models in Forecasting Monthly Streamflow in Rivers: A Case Study of River Nile and Its Tributaries

The dynamic and accurate forecasting of monthly streamflow processes of a river are important in the management of extreme events such as floods and drought, optimal design of water storage structures and drainage network. Many Rivers are selected in this study: White Nile, Blue Nile, Atbara River and main Nile. This paper aims to recommend the best linear stochastic model in forecasting monthly streamflow in rivers. Two commonly hydrologic models: the deseasonalized autoregressive moving average (DARMA) models and seasonal autoregressive integrated moving average (SARIMA) models are selected for modeling monthly streamflow in all Rivers in the study area. Two different types of monthly streamflow data (deseasonalized data and differenced data) were used to develop time series model using previous flow conditions as predictors. The one month ahead forecasting performances of all models for predicted period were compared. The comparison of model forecasting performance was conducted based upon graphical and numerical criteria. The result indicates that deasonalized autoregressive moving average (DARMA) models perform better than seasonal autoregressive integrated moving average (SARIMA) models for monthly streamflow in Rivers.

Tree or shrub: a functional branch analysis of Jatropha curcas L.

Jatropha curcas is an oil-bearing semi-evergreen shrub or small tree with potential as a source of sustainable biofuel, yet information regarding vegetative and fruit biomass in relation to plant architecture is lacking. Research conducted in Indonesia used the tree based functional branch analysis (FBA) model as a non-destructive method to estimate above and belowground biomass, and plant architecture. The FBA utility for shrubs was unknown and required modification. This research used destructive measurements to validate modifications to the FBA model that included sub-categorisation of the tapering coefficient for twig, branch, and wood diameter classes, and addition of a fruit load parameter in the distal link. The modified FBA model confirmed jatropha to be a shrub rather than a tree, producing variable estimates for aboveground biomass. This variation was due to morphological plasticity in the length–diameter relationship of the branches that diverged from fractal branching architecture. Fruit biomass variation between replicates was not well estimated and total proximal root diameter was a poor predictor of total root biomass, due to the proximal roots having enlarged water storage structures that do not follow fractal branching assumptions. Jatropha fruit was shown to predominate on twigs with a diameter between 0.9 and 1.4 cm. Understanding the correlation between fruit development and plant architecture will be necessary for fine-tuning the FBA model for future commercial breeding and selection. The high degree of morphological plasticity displayed by jatropha requires consideration when determining plant biomass.

INTEGRATED WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PROGRAMME AT GUNJALA VILLAGE – A CASE STUDY

Integrated watershed management programme was launched in Tamsi mandal of gunjala village by using ‘Four water Concept’. Case study included Questionnaire survey from farmers living in that village, and continuous study over a period of two years. Tamsi village is a tribal village and drought area with very less rainfall. Total project area is 4566 Hac, Project Cost Rs. 547.92 Lakhs. The sanctioned area of Gunjala micro watershed is 710 Hac with a outlay of Rs. 85.20 Lakhs. Out of which the total expenditure incurred was Rs.39.12 Lakhs and constructed structures were LBS, RFDs, PTs, CDs and Plantation. Over two year period, it was observed that, 2 years of period the ground water has been improved in this village and three Bore wells are drilled and they are successful, even during peak summer they could meet their day today activities. The farmer Jadhav Uttam has an additional income of Rs. 17600 per Acre in cotton and Rs. 6300 per Acre in Red Gram. The farmer Gnan Singh had an additional income of Rs. 17600 per Acre in cotton and Rs. 5,250 per Acre in Red Gram. The farmer Amber Singh had an additional income of Rs. 13200 per Acre in cotton and Rs. 3,500 per Acre in Red Gram. In the same way, others farmers were also able to generate the benefits from the construction of water storage structures. Total Additional income generated for Seven farmers was Rs. 6, 31000/in 2011-2012 Cropping Season with construction of Check Dams of Rs.3,24000/an additional average income per Acre to the farmer is of Rs. 22,500/and a series of 8 Nos. check dams are constructed on single 3 rd order stream which flows Across the 6 Grama Panchayats from ridge to valley. There are 90 farmers cultivating 168 Acre of land who are benefited by getting an additional income of Rs.37,80,000/-.

Study of evaporation and seepage losses from farm pond in saline area

Farm ponds have traditionally been used as an economical and efficient way to retain water for livestock, watering and irrigation. Water harvesting through farm pond and utilization of conserved water for cultivated field is very crucial for promoting sustainable agriculture in Saline Area. The traditional concept of locating dug out structures at strategic locations was revived and promoted as farm ponds. To overcome the drought prone situation in drought affected districts of Vidarbha, constructions of number of dug out type ponds (water storage structures) for harvesting of excess rain water on farmers field is the best option available and is being implemented since last three years. Research Concluded evaporation and seepage loss component from unlined dug out type farm pond was found to be 58.82 and 12.60 cm, respectively during three months of water storage period (October to December). The evaporation component in Lined Black polyethylene was found to be in the range of 19.51 to 24.60 per cent of storage period. The one protective irrigation using harvested in runoff water in dug out farm ponds resulted in increases in the dry land productivity of Cotton and Gram crops to 47 to 55 per cent and 43 to 58 per cent, respectively.

Seismic analysis of elevated pure conical tanks under vertical excitation

Truncated conical vessels are commonly used as liquid containers in elevated tanks. Despite the widespread use of this type of structure worldwide, no direct code provisions are currently available covering its seismic analysis and design. The purpose of the current study is to assess the importance of considering the vertical component of ground accelerations when analyzing and designing this type of water-storage structure. The study is conducted using an equivalent mechanical model that estimates the normal forces that develop in the tank walls when subjected to vertical excitation. In addition, a three-dimensional finite element model has been developed by modeling the walls of the tank using shell elements. The finite element model has been employed to predict maximum membrane and overall meridional stresses due to both hydrodynamic and hydrostatic pressure distributions. Comparisons have been conducted to assess the significance of considering vertical excitation and to identify the magnification in meridional stresses due to bending effects associated with support conditions and large deformations.

Comparative Analysis of Elevated Water Storage Structure using Different Types of Bracing Patterns in Staging

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Identification of indicators of groundwater quality formation process using a zoning model

Drinking water safety is a world-wide focus. In Yinchuan Plain of western China, groundwater is mostly saline water, and it has generated many problems for the life of local residents. Yinchuan Plain exhibits differences from the mountain area to the plain in terrain and elevation, and landforms and scales. Such differences resulted in hydro-geological water storage structures with different water yield properties and permeabilities of the aquifers. These water storage structures are the places where the groundwater moves and is retained, as well as where the air–water–rock interaction and the migration and differentiation between substances in the water take place. With the arid climate and intense irrigation in Yinchuan Plain, the hydro-chemical features of the groundwater exhibit distinct zonation. To explore the formative mechanism of the groundwater quality in Yinchuan Plain, a zoning model for the formation of groundwater quality is established in three layers, the first layer shows the geological and hydrogeological conditions that express the landform and landscape, geological age, lithology, and hydrodynamic features of the studied area. The second layer indicates the zonation of the formation of groundwater quality. According to the major hydro-geochemical actions, the plain is divided from west to east into lixiviation, evaporation, and evaporation–mixing zones. The third layer contains the hydrodynamic features that express the hydro-chemical type, salinity, and the contents of the major ions as well as trace elements fluorine and arsenic. The features of each zone are quantitatively expressed with thermodynamic, hydrodynamic, and hydro-chemical indicators.

Water Data Systems: Science, Practice, and Policy

Water agencies, governmental organizations, and non-governmental organizations accountable for water use, development, and conservation are dealing with ways to address changes in water data collection, maintenance, storage, visualization, and communication. As demand for water resources and variability of water availability increases, water data are essential to monitoring changes and finding solutions. Coupled with other data efforts to enhance “big data” and serve critical environmental issues, water data reveal the complex data-scape that demands streamlined data standards across scientific communities where data processing systems are fragmented due to multiple sources and methodologies, limited data sharing, and incomplete data coverage. With a better understanding of some of the discrepancies in the science, practice, and policy of water data systems, we need to consider and implement innovative ways to foster stronger water data sharing arrangements. This special issue on Water Data explores the science, practice, and policy of water data systems, provides examples in which data integration has been successful or ineffective, and explores the technological frontier of water data systems.

Sustainable and multifunctional mosquito pest management: a pull opportunity and a push advice

Since 2001, we have repeatedly detected pathogens during mosquito field studies in Austria (e. g. West-Nile-, Tahyna-, Usutu-virus and Plasmodium sp.). Recent surveillance discovered two invasive and two thermophilic mosquito species that were new for the Austrian fauna (Aedes japonicus, Ae. albopictus, Anopheles hyrcanus and Culiseta longiareolata). These species increase the possible spectrum of vector-borne communicable diseases in Austria. But until today Flaviviridae and Bunyaviridae have only been detected in context with the endemic mosquito species. Little attention was given to control pests and to develop sustainable, useful and affordable projects for controlling the dynamic of these indigenous mosquito populations. We emphasize the need for integration of mosquito control aspects, which up to now were ignored within contemporary Austrian river construction projects and we ask for a Europe wide consideration of mosquito control within the EU-Waterframework Directive (WFD); in particular we recommend mosquito control elements within fish ladders which are prescribed for water storage structures all over Europe. We also report on a material which allows the pulling of mosquitoes in the dimension of landscape management. We present our experience and emphasize the great advantage of actions working in connection with constructive river engineering.

Innovation for Making Potable Water Available in Saline Groundwater Areas

Groundwater salinity is a widespread problem around the world with adverse consequences on health, soil quality and overall eco-systems. With the rapidly growing demands of groundwater, its exploitation is also accelerating. It is also changing the flow of the groundwater, which in turn causes ingress of sea water or intrusion of other saline groundwater or polluted water from the surrounding areas. The major consequences are scarcity of water even for domestic use and rise in the level and spread of groundwater salinity. An innovative technique of creating a pool of fresh groundwater within a saline aquifer is developed, which can address the issue. Technique is about recharging the saline aquifer with harvested rain water in such a way that recharged rain water does not get mixed with the existing saline groundwater rather it forms pool of fresh water in the saline aquifer. Water from this pool can be extracted without getting it mixed with saline groundwater. This innovation also eliminates the need of cost intensive provision of water storage structures to store rain water for fulfilling the domestic water needs. Thus, the saline aquifer unsuitable or otherwise useless for groundwater development can be used.

Water flow measurements in Turkey's rivers and evaluation of alternative methods

The accuracy and sustainability in the flow measurement of rivers has a great importance for the water management, planning of water storage structures and prediction of floods. Flow measurements include some difficulty due to the variability of many hydrologic factors. Current rivers flow measurement in Turkey is generally based on the use of limnograph and discharge rating curve and, advances has mostly been made the improvement of reading of limnograph. In this study, at the stage of the discharge measurement, giving priority to the improvement in the measurements of flow velocity and cross-section has been emphasized. Then, while obtaining discharge rating curve, it was expressed that not only the depth of water but also flow velocity values have to be taken into account for the preparing and using the discharge rating curve. A field study conducted by the acoustic method sampled for the assessments that were made. From findings, It was concluded that the use of flow velocity values for the discharge rating curve gives better estimate results.

Incorporating on-farm water storage safety into catchment policy frameworks: International best practice policy for private dam safety accountability and assurance

The safety of catchment basins is threatened because of the potential and severe consequences of private on-farm dam failure. Such failure follows inadequate development and implementation of accountability and assurance policy in relation to water storage, a consideration which resources and land use policy planning must take into account if lives, private property, public infrastructure and the environment downstream are to be saved. Thus, this paper aims to explore the interrelated policy issues associated with improving safety of farm dam water storage structures to mitigate individual and cumulative dam failure threats. The paper provides insights into the design of best-practice resources and land use policy for the Australian setting based on contemporary international best practice in private dam safety accountability and assurance policy. A strategic literature review identifies international dam safety policy benchmarks from minimum to best practice. Practical application of the benchmarked policy is then undertaken through case studies in two contrasting Australian states, Tasmania and South Australia, which literature suggests represent a leader and laggard in terms of best international policy practice. Whilst Tasmania provides leadership and best practice in comparison with international policy benchmarks, the paper reports data from a 15-year longitudinal case study which confirms that South Australia lags and demonstrably would benefit from application of the policy guidelines developed. The case study on appropriate dam safety management accountability and assurance policy development for catchments in two strongly contrasting state jurisdictions in Australia is novel, as are the recommendations developed for how resources and land use policy can best address cumulative threats from smaller dams in catchments. The case study and recommendations can assist similar jurisdictions world-wide to address the threats associated with farm dams in catchments.