Soft Water Research Articles

Nanoscale Ion-Exchange Materials: From Analytical Chemistry to Industrial and Biomedical Applications.

Nano-sized ion exchangers (NIEs) combine the properties of common bulk ion-exchange polymers with the unique advantages of downsizing into nanoparticulate matter. In particular, being by nature milti-charged ions exchangers, NIEs possess high reactivity and stability in suspensions. This brief review provides an introduction to the emerging landscape of various NIE materials and summarizes their actual and potential applications. Special attention is paid to the different methods of NIE fabrication and studying their ion-exchange behavior. Critically discussed are different examples of using NIEs in chemical analysis, e.g., as solid-phase extraction materials, ion chromatography separating phases, modifiers for capillary electrophoresis, etc., and in industry (fuel cells, catalysis, water softening). Also brought into focus is the potential of NIEs for controlled drug and contrast agent delivery.

Unraveling the Ion Uptake Capacitive Deionization of Sea- and Highly Saline-Water by Sulfur and Nitrogen Co-Doped Porous Carbon Modified with Molybdenum Sulfide.

In parallel to the depletion of potable water reservoirs, novel technologies have been developed for seawater softening, as it is the most abundant source for generating deionized water. Although salt removal at subosmotic pressures and ambient temperatures by applying low-operating potentials with high energy efficiency made capacitive deionization (CDI) an advantageous water-softening process, its practical application is limited by insufficient ion removal capacity and low concentration influent. The performance of a CDI system is in progress with engineering the electrode active materials, also facilitating the advance design in highly saline- and seawater study. Herein, an innovative strategy was developed to provide high-performance CDI systems based on efficient and electrochemical ion-uptake active materials with a simple initial preparation. Nitrogen-doped porous carbons (N-pCs) received benefits from a high specific surface area and good surface wettability. The N-pCs were modified with molybdenum oxide/sulfide intercalative array and developed as CDI electrode active materials for desalination of both low/medium saline- and seawater. The MoS2/S,N-pC electrode materials exhibited perfect optimized salt adsorption capacity (SACs) of 47.9 mg g-1 when compared to N-pC (37.9 mg g-1) and MoO3/N-pC (39.6 mg g-1) counterparts at 1.4 V in a 750 ppm NaCl solution. In addition, the assembled CDI cells exhibited reasonable cycle stability and retained 96.7% of their initial SAC in continuous CDI cycles for 128,000 s. The fabricated CDI cell rendered an excellent salt removal efficiency (SRE, %) of 13.34% from the real seawater sample at 1.2 V. In detail, the SRE % of the NaCl, KCl, MgCl2, and CaCl2 soluble salts with respect to seawater sample exhibited a remarkable SRE % of 30.8%, 36%, 32.6%, and 19.3%, respectively. These SRE % values (>13.34%) provide convincing evidence on the reasonable ion uptake capability of the fabricated CDI cells for removing Na+, K+, Mg2+, and Ca2+ ions compared to other soluble component. The advanced cell design parallel to the promising outcomes provided herein makes these CDI systems immensely propitious for efficient water softening.

Study of Salinity in Market Garden Production on the Togolese Coast

Agriculture accounts for over 40% of Togo's GDP, and employs almost 65% of its working population. Market gardening, one of its sub-sectors, remains an important source of income and food self-sufficiency for rural and peri-urban populations. Among the peri-urban production zones, the coastline, by virtue of its geographical position, is sensitive to the salinisation of water and soil, as well as to sea spray. Salinity has a negative impact on market garden production. This study was therefore carried out to investigate the salinity of water and soil used in market garden production on the Togolese coast. To do this, measurements were taken of the electrical conductivity (EC) and pH of irrigation water and soil sampled in the Ablogamé and Agodéké districts, two production areas on the coastal strip. In each of these areas, water and soil samples were taken at three sites, with three samples per site, giving a total of six sites for analysis. At Ablogamé, the values for irrigation water ranged from 1113.67±3.06 µS/cm, 1971.67±9.24 µS/cm, to 1926.33±6.51 µS/cm and for Agodéké, they ranged from 756.67 ± 1.53, 1016.00 ± 1.00 to 1178.33 ± 0.58 µS/cm. This shows that, according to CIRAD and WHO standards, the water analysed is classified as "salty", with a variability of EC within the same production zone, the exception being one of the Agodeke sites, which has soft water according to WHO standards. The FAO, for its part, classifies all the waters as having slight to moderate restrictions for irrigation. Furthermore, the EC values obtained are moderately and slightly high. In addition, those of the Agodéké sites, located at around 83 to 108 m from the sea, in the erosive zone, are generally lower than those of the Ablogamé sites located in the accumulation zone, at around 288 m to 406 m from the sea. The pH of the water is slightly alkaline. As for the soil, the EC values are below the norms at all the sites studied, thus demonstrating the non-saline nature of the market-garden production areas on the Togolese coastal strip. The soil pH is neutral to slightly alkaline. There is therefore a dynamism in the Togolese coastal aquifers that requires further studies to improve the performance of vegetable production on this coast.

Abstract P377: Effect Of Treatment Of Denture Stomatitis On Blood Pressure, C-reactive Protein, Body Mass Index, And Lipid Profile.

Background: The literature shows that partially or entirely edentulous patients can have an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases, particularly hypertension and stroke. However, edentulous patients wearing complete dentures present Denture Stomatitis (DS) very frequently, associated with deleterious cardiovascular effects, mainly arterial hypertension. Objective: This study evaluated blood pressure, C-reactive protein (CRP), body mass index (BMI), and lipid profiles of completely edentulous DS-positive patients at baseline, and after 15 and 45 days of treatment. Methods: The treatment protocol consists of brushing the palate with a soft brush and water, denture brushing with a denture-specific brush and mild soap, and oral, topical application of nystatin 100,000 IU. The degree of DS was diagnosed by two calibrated and blinded researchers using the modified Newton classification. Three measurements were performed at 5-minute intervals recording the systolic and diastolic blood pressure. The ELISA assessed the CRP (mg/L) of blood samples. The Friedman test and Dunn's post-test evaluated blood pressure (mmHg), BMI (kg/m 2 ), and lipid profile (mg/dL) data. ANOVA and Tukey's post-test was applied for CRP using the software SPSS 25.0 (p<0.05). Results: Twenty-five participants were included, with a mean age of 68±6.4 years.DS degree decreased over time (p<0.001), significantly decreasing after 15 days and intermediate values after 45 days. Systolic blood pressure showed a trend for reduction at 15 days (147.9±17.3 vs. 141.7±19.0 mmHg; p=0.058) and a significant decrease after 45 days (147.9±17.3 vs. 140.5±14.1 mmHg; p=0.017), while diastolic blood pressure was similar over time (88±13.3, 87±10.5 and 86±9.8 mmHg). The treatment did not significantly affect the CRP (1.3±0.9; 1.3±0.1; 1.1±0.1 mg/L; p=0.824), BMI (30.1±6; 30.3±6; 30.2±6 kg/m 2 ; p=0.391), and lipid profile (Total cholesterol: 187.3±39; 185.2±40; 185.3±33 mg/dl; p=0.416, HDL: 48.9±11.5; 49.0±9.8; 47.4±11.0 mg/dL; p=0.217). Conclusion: The applied treatment of DS reduced the patients' DS degree and systolic arterial pressure.

Basic consolidation and impermeability laws for nano-silica-sol grouted mudstone

The engineering characteristic of the water absorption, swelling, softening, and disintegration of muddy soft rocks can cause long-term large deformation and instability in muddy tunnels. Due to the poor injectability of conventional cement slurry into rock microcracks and insufficient reinforcement and anti-seepage effects on mudstone, this research performed tests on the modification and reinforcement with silica sol. Taking nano-silica sol as the research subject, this study analyzed the injectability of the slurry, the anti-seepage performance of the gel, and the macro and micro characteristics of the pore closure of consolidated mudstone. Ultimately, the basic laws of silica sol grouting and anti-seepage reinforcement for mudstone are obtained. Besides, the impact of silica sol consolidation on grouting is examined, with its performance being compared with traditional slurries. Research indicates that the silica sol slurry exhibits superior injectability and permeability, with its gel demonstrating enduring volume stability and a compact structure. When applied to mudstone, silica sol grouting markedly diminishes both porosity (by 1.68–1.88%) and permeability, reaching an ultra-low level of 10-9 cm/s. NMR tests further elucidate that silica sol is more efficacious in sealing medium and large pores (with T2 > 10 ms, >0.1 μm) compared to smaller ones (with T2 < 10 ms, below 0.1 μm). Therefore, silica sol is a prime candidate for grouting and sealing applications in micro-cracked mudstones of coal mine tunnels, particularly in muddy tunnel projects necessitating extended maintenance and anti-seepage measures. The research is expected to provide solutions to the anti-seepage and reinforcement of mudstone.

Impact of potassium in alleviating water stress on wheat plants irrigated with treated water Some vegetative growth characteristics

The study was conducted using plastic pots during the growing season 2020-2021 in private field crops at the Holy Karbala Governorate to study the effect of the quality of water, soil moisture and potassium levels on some growth parameters of wheat plant var. A.L. baraka. A factorial experiment was carried out using a completely randomized design (C.R.D.) with three replications, which included two types of irrigation water treated heavy water and soft water, three levels of field capacity, i.e., %, 50% and 100% and four levels of potassium, i.e., 0, 1000, 2000 and 3000 mg. L-1 The experiment included 72 experimental units. The results were statistically analyzed, and the means of treatments were compared using the least significant difference under the probability level 0.05. The following characteristics were measurements: plant height, number of leaf areas, dry weight of shoot and root systems. Results could be summarized as follows: Water quality had a statistical effect on the traits under study, as the treatment with treated heavy water gave the highest values of plant height, number of tillers, number of leaves, leaf area, root and shoots dry weights, which amounted to 70.21cm, 14.03leaf, 23.42cm2 , 6.24g, 1.76g respectively compared to soft water, which amounted to 69.17 cm, 3.52tiller, 13.24leaf, 22cm2 , 58, 5.94 and 1.68g. The addition of 100% of the field capacity value gave the highest averages of the following height, number of leaves, leaf area, root and shoots dry weights, which amounted to 80.80cm, 15.98leaves, 27.81cm2 , 7.69g and 2.15g sequentially. The addition of 3000 mg.L-1 of potassium gave the highest averages for the traits plant height, number of leaves, leaf area, shoot dry weight and root dry weight, where their averages were 73.11cm, 14.66 leaves, 25.11cm2 , 6.63g and 1.87g respectively. Some bi- and tr-interactions between studied factors showed a different effect on the studied characteristics. Keywords: Wheat plant, water quality, field capacity, potassium concentration.

Lead and cadmium in wheat plants as influenced by water quality, water stress and potassium.

The study was conducted using plastic pots during the growing season 2020-2021 in private field crops at the Holy Karbala Governorate to study the effect of the quality of water, soil moisture and potassium levels on lead and cadmium of wheat plant var. A.L. baraka. A factorial experiment was carried out using a completely randomized design (C.R.D.) with three replications, which included two types of irrigation water treated heavy water and soft water, three levels of field capacity, i.e., %, 50% and 100% and four levels of potassium, i.e., 0, 1000, 2000 and 3000 mg. L-1 The experiment included 72 experimental units. The results were statistically analyzed, and the means of treatments were compared using the least significant difference under the probability level of 0.05. The following characteristics were measurements: The element lead and cadmium in the roots, leaves and leaves were obtained; results were statistically different in the traits under study; treated water treatment gave the highest values for the concentration of lead and cadmium in leaves and grains, their averages were 17.38 mg-1 0.691 mg mg-1 , 0.207 mg. .061 mg.kg-1 and 0.031 mg.kg-1 and 6.48, respectively. The highest concentration is 6.69 mg. Direct lead to water (treated) was 3.983 over its counterpart in plain water 1.035, with an increase of 298.3%. The heavy water treatment gave a very high value with leaves cadmium concentration of 0.6916 mg. Cadmium 1 mg.kg.compared to the treatment of soft water, which gave the value 0.0311 mg.kg-1 , with an increase of 565.59%.Treatment of 100% of the field capacity value gave the highest lead and cadmium concentration values in roots, leaves and grains 14.41 mg-1 ,2.716,1.389,0.480,0.383 and 0.181 sequentially. The addition of (3000) potassium decreased the lead concentration in the roots, leaves and grains due to potassium application of 9.73 mg1 ,2.170,1.056,0.39,0.233 and 0.079 sequentially. Keywords: lead, cadmium, wheat plant, water quality, water stress, potassium.

Investigation of internal damage evolution in gneiss considering water softening

In soft rock tunnels, there are often large deformations during construction, especially when the groundwater seepage and softens the surrounding rock. For achieving the purpose of studying the softening effect of water immersion on strength and stability of surrounding rock, 15 rock samples were selected for physical and mechanical tests under 5 conditions: natural state and free immersion for 1, 3, 6, and 9 months, and nuclear magnetic resonance technology(NMR) was also adopted to test the internal pore structure of specimens with different immersion durations, thus the micro structure features of the gneiss, such as the NMR relaxation time T2 spectrum distribution, porosity, and pore volume ratio of different pore sizes under water softening were then obtained. The NMR results shows that the longer the free immersion duration of the rock sample, the greater the porosity; at the same time, the number of micropores in the rock gradually decreases under the interaction of water and rock, and the mesopores increase slightly first and then decrease all the time. The number of macropores is gradually increasing. When the immersion duration is 6 months, the number of macropores begins to increase significantly, and the mechanical properties of the specimens begin to drop significantly. By 9 months, the proportion of macropores in the rock has reached 57.6%. The results showed that the number growth of macropores is the root cause of the macroscopic failure of rock sample. The study results have significance for on-site construction in water-rich areas.

Water and chemical consumption in the textile processing industry of Bangladesh

The textile wet processing industry is considered a notorious polluter due to its widespread use of natural resources without proper replenishment. Bangladesh is one of the largest producers of textile products in the World, and therefore, it is vulnerable to environmental degradation. Bangladesh is predominantly a cotton processing country; therefore, reactive dyes are commonly used, and the dye combination is very water and chemical-intensive. There is a scarcity of information on the consumption of water, textile dyes and the generation of wastewater in the textile sector. Thus, this study aimed to estimate the amount of water use, wastewater generation, and chemical use in textile wet processing units. Therefore, a face-to-face in-depth questionnaire-based survey was conducted in 18 textile wet processing factories, including knit composite, knit dyeing, yarn dyeing, denim dyeing, and knit and yarn dyeing. The average specific groundwater consumption to process 1 Kg of textile materials was 164 L/Kg (SD ~ 81.8); dyehouse water was136 L/Kg (SD ~ 70.6), while corresponding wastewater was 119 L/Kg (SD ~ 73.0). This high consumption of groundwater is directly linked to the depletion of groundwater in the region, where textile industries are situated and also, causes water pollution through wastewater generation. The water used in the dyehouse water was usually soft water and found to be in a range of 68% to 100% that of groundwater extracted. For chemical use, a factory used 449 g of chemicals to process 1 Kg of textile materials, in which the most widely used chemicals were inorganic and basic chemical in nature. However, the chemical use varied from 152 g/Kg to 705 g/Kg of textile production. The total chemical consumption ranged from 954 tons to 4,525 tons a year. More than 50% of the wastewater treatment plants were biological, a quarter of combination and physico-chemical and biological, and the rest were chemical treatment plants in this study. Even though this study may not represent the whole textile wet processing industry of Bangladesh, however, This study provides baseline information on water and chemical consumption and wastewater generation. Our findings would be helpful for policy makers and researchers to identify transformative challenges required at the national level.

Calcium Reduction Using Variations of Thickness and Retention Time of Cocoa Shell Activated Carbon

High levels of hardness can lead to increased cases of kidney stones. Hardness levels can be reduced by using activated carbon from the cocoa rind as an adsorbent. The purpose of this research was to determine the variation of activated carbon thickness and optimum retention time in reducing the calcium content of dug well water, to determine the percent decrease in calcium ion levels at the optimum variation, and to determine the significance of the difference in the decreased in calcium levels between the treatment groups. The research method used the principle of adsorption of activated carbon from cocoa shells to calcium ions, which are activated by KOH. There were ten treatment samples with different variations of activated carbon thickness and retention time. The results showed that the thickness of activated carbon of 60 cm with a retention time of 50 minutes had the optimum ability to reduce the calcium content of dug well water. The percentage decrease in calcium levels reached 89,041 % with a decreased concentration of 234 ppm. The result of the statistical test showed a significance value of 0,05. The conclusion of the research is that activated carbon of cocoa shells can reduce calcium levels to the levels of soft water hardness, with variations in activated carbon thickness and retention time having a significant effect.

ASPEN PLUS CONCEPTUAL DESIGN OF BASIC RAW HARD WATER TREATMENT AND SOFTENING OPERATION

Hard water can cause scaling concerns in pipes, turbines, boilers, and heat exchangers used in mining, oil and gas, and industrial applications. It also interferes with nearly every housekeeping chore, from laundry and dishwashing to bathing and personal hygiene. ENRTL-SR and PITZER property models in Aspen Plus V8.8 were chosen during the modelling and simulation of soft water production from a hypothesized hard water stream containing sand. Findings show that, under normal conditions, about 3 m3 of soft pure water can be generated from approximately 40 m3 of raw water using right unit configuration and treatment solvent proportion. Drawbacks which would have address several limitations faced during the simulation, as concluded, can be solved using suggested alternative software tools. Water treatment scientist should try to simulate the same process using Aspen Plus utilizing real data from an existing water treatment facility to correctly test for effectiveness of the software tool. Modification of several existing water treatment plants across the globe to soften water produced is recommended, given its suitability for both domestic and industrial use.

Conversion of Activated Calcium in Industrial Water to Micron CaCO3 Powder Based on CO2 Absorption and Mineralization

Carbon dioxide capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) is one of the essential approaches to achieving permanent CO2 emission reduction. A new idea of absorbing and mineralizing CO2 with industrial wastewater and converting activated calcium into micron CaCO3 powder is proposed in this paper, which synchronizes water softening and CO2 fixation. Therefore, this paper investigated the characteristics of circulating water quality in the iron and steel industry and the transformation behaviors of CO2 capture by activated calcium to CaCO3 powder in the mild aqueous environment under different process parameters. The phase composition, morphology, and particle size distribution (PSD) of CaCO3 powder were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM), and (laser particle size analyzer) LPSA, respectively. In addition, a green integrated cycle system for industrial water capture of mineralized CO2 was preliminarily constructed, which provides a reference method for carbon reduction and economic utilization of carbon sources in an industrial system.

MODELING OF NONLINEAR MASS FLOWS DURING WATER SOFTENING IN A MECHANICAL FILTER

A mathematical model of water softening in a mechanical filter based on the balance relations for the mass components of the thermodynamical system is constructed. The initial-boundary value problem of convective diffusion accompanied by a chemical reaction is formulated for one-dimensional case of spatial coordinates and reduced to the equivalent system of integro-differential equations. The solution of this system is constructed by the method of successive iterations by decomposing the functions of the mass concentrations of impurity in water solution and in the body skeleton into series around the solutions of the homogeneous linear initial-boundary value problem. Based on the expression for the impurity concentration in the aqueous solution the mass flows of impurity are obtained and investigated. The nonlinearity of steady-state regime, which is caused by the transfer of mass simultaneously by diffusion and convection mechanisms, is shown.

Novel bisphosphonates via castor oil

AbstractHydroxy fatty acids (HFAs) have long been a staple component of feedstock oils with uses ranging from motor oils to food to pharmaceuticals. Castor oil, which contains the HFA ricinoleic acid as its principal component, is the most widely used source of HFA in the world. In addition, bisphosphonates are a functional moiety that has been shown to display a variety of industrial applications, ranging from use in water softeners to osteoporosis drugs, primarily due to their affinity for the calcium ion. We have long been interested in the modification of ricinoleic acid from castor oil to phosphorus derivatives, including α‐hydroxy phosphonates and phosphonic acids, and have now accomplished the synthesis of a family of ricinoleic‐derived bisphosphonates: one that retains the cis alkene found in ricinoleic acid and one where the alkene has undergone hydrogenation. These compounds have been produced in high yields and high purity and the synthesis of these compounds is reported.

Cuticular Wax Triterpenes Maintain Storage Quality of Blueberries by Reducing Water Loss.

Cuticular wax contributes to maintaining postharvest storage quality against fruit water loss and softening. Triterpenoids, such as oleanolic acid (OA) and ursolic acid (UA), are the main components in blueberry cuticular wax, but their role in water migration during the storage of blueberries remains to be determined. Here, we examined the relationship between the content of OA and UA and the storage quality of blueberry fruit (25 °C). The results revealed that the UA content during eight-day postharvest storage ranged from 58 to 77 μg cm-2, which was negatively related to weight loss. Additionally, we investigated the effect of exogenous OA and UA on water migration in the blueberry fruit during storage at room temperature; the weight loss was significantly lower (by 22%) with UA treatment than in the control fruit. Our findings indicate that OA and UA effectively affect water migration in blueberry fruit during postharvest storage, which could contribute to improving postharvest preservation techniques.

Physiochemical and Sensory Properties of Bread Fortified with Wheat Bran and Whey Protein Isolates

This study investigated the effect of fortifying baked goods with wheat bran (WBPI) and whey protein isolates (WPI) on their physicochemical and sensory properties. The aim was to enhance the nutritional value by incorporating high-protein ingredients. WBPI and WPI, which are rich in essential amino acids, were chosen to create high-protein flour blends. The main advantage of WBPI is that it is derived from readily available and inexpensive wheat bran. High-protein flour blends fortified with substitutions of 5%, 10%, and 15% flour with WBPI and WPI were subjected to chemical and rheological analysis. WBPI substitution slightly increased water binding and softening, but it resulted in a decrease in dough quality. In contrast, WPI substitution prolonged dough development time, improved dough stability, and enhanced farinographic quality. WBPI-substituted dough exhibited comparable extensographic properties to the reference flour, with 5% WBPI substitution leading to improved energy and dough resistance. However, as the level of WBPI flour substitution increased, extensographic parameters gradually declined without further enhancing the dough’s mechanical properties. Samples with 5% WPI substitution demonstrated superior mechanical properties compared to the reference sample. Baguette with high WBPI substitution was associated with reduced overall acceptance due to a bitter taste caused by the presence of small peptides, ferulic acid, and tannins, as confirmed by correlation analysis.

Improving cathode cleaning and current efficiency by regulating loose scale deposition in scale inhibitor-containing water

For electrochemical water softening in practical water containing scale inhibitor, unsatisfactory cathodic cleaning and low hardness removal effect greatly limit its wide large-scale application. An effective improvement is not only dependent on the performance of external mechanical cleaning, but also closely related to the scale structure itself. In this work, the deposition of loose scale layer in the presence of scale inhibitor and its promotion on current efficiency and cathode cleaning efficiency were investigated from interfacial electrochemical perspective. Results reveal that such scale formation is attributed to the relatively high enrichment degree of scaling ions at cathode-water interface. At a high current density or low flow velocity, a relatively high interfacial pH is obtained and the thickness of this alkaline interface is larger than that at lower current density or higher flow velocity. This leads to the increase of CO32− generated by the reaction of HCO3− with more OH−. Besides, due to the weak chelation ability of the scale inhibitor at the alkaline interface, more Ca2+ are released and interact with cathodically formed CO32–. Corresponding scaling driving force is higher than that at lower current density or higher flow velocity. This leads to the deposition of loose scale layer with less stable morphology and a higher specific surface area. This as-deposited scale layer not only acting as seeds accelerates the crystallization and enhances the current efficiency, but also acting as an fragile pre-deposition layer facilitates the cleaning of cathode and produces the highest cleaning efficiency over 95%. This is beneficial for the stable operation of hardness removal device.

Application of Low-Pressure Reverse Osmosis Membranes for Drinking Water Softening

Application of Low-Pressure Reverse Osmosis Membranes for Drinking Water Softening

Effects of Commercial Sunscreens on Survival, Reproduction and Embryonic Development of the Aquatic Snail Biomphalaria glabrata (SAY, 1818).

Over the past few years, there has been a significant increase in the use of sunscreens. Consequently, the occurrence in aquatic environments of ultraviolet filters has also increased. The present study aims to evaluate the toxicity of two commercial sunscreens to the aquatic snail Biomphalaria glabrata. Acute assays were performed with adult snails exposed to solutions of the two products in synthetic soft water. Reproduction and development assays were carried out, involving individual adult and egg masses exposure to assess fertility and embryonic development. Sunscreen A showed a LC50-96h of 6.8g/L and reduction in number of eggs and egg masses per individual in the concentration of 0.3g/L. Sunscreen B presented higher malformation rates in 0.4g/L with 63% of malformed embryos. Results indicate that the formulation used in sunscreens is an important factor in aquatic toxicity and needs to be evaluated before the final product is commercialized.

METHOD OF REDUCING WATER HARDNESS SALTS AND HEAT AND MASS EXCHANGE EQUIPMENT FOR ITS IMPLEMENTATION

Thousands of steam and water boilers of medium and low parameters operate in the country's industry, municipal energy, and agriculture. Their reliable work is largely determined by maintaining a rational water-chemical regime. Dissolved impurities that affect the operation of boiler equipment primarily include hardness salts. When using hard water, scale is formed on the surfaces, heat transfer deteriorates, and pipes are overheated from the heating side, which can lead to their destruction.&#x0D; The purpose of the work is to improve the quality of softened water, reduce the consumption of reagents, and accelerate the softening process due to the use of heat and mass exchange equipment.&#x0D; In the work, water desalination was carried out by the method of discrete-pulse energy input in a rotor-pulsation apparatus. Ammonia was used as a reagent for removing hardness salts. The water-ammonia mixture is processed in the rotor-pulsation apparatus at a flow pulsation frequency of 3-5 kHz and a pressure drop amplitude of 360-400 kPa until the temperature rises to 40ºС. The increase in temperature occurs due to the transition of mechanical energy into thermal energy.&#x0D; It was determined that the degree of softening of water is 99% at a mass concentration of ammonia of 0.022%, and the amplitude of the pressure drop is 400 kPa. As the amplitude of the pressure drop decreases to 380 and 360 kPa, the degree of water softening decreases to 90 and 95%, respectively. It is also determined that water desalination using the rotor-pulsation apparatus should be carried out in the mode of recirculation of ammonia solution with a concentration of 0.022%, with a flow pulsation frequency of 4 kHz and a pressure drop amplitude of 400 kPa. As a result of the work, the optimal technological parameters of water treatment were determined and the efficiency of its purification using the proposed equipment was proved in comparison with the conventional one.