Water-scarce Regions Research Articles

Fog Harvesting: An Effective Solution to The Water Scarcity Problem

Fog harvesting, also known as fog collection, is a sustainable approach to addressing water scarcity which captures water droplets from fog, providing a renewable water source for water-scarce regions. The aim of this study is to give more background about fog harvesting by introducing fog harvesting systems, their advantages and disadvantages, real world and laboratory projects and efficiency. This study emphasizes fog harvesting's potential in arid regions with frequent fog occurrence, discusses working mechanisms, and explores nature-inspired and nanotechnology-based fog collectors. Local climate data's importance for feasibility assessment is highlighted, along with the vital role of community involvement for long-term success. Fog harvesting offers a promising and environmentally friendly solution to alleviate water scarcity challenges when combined with innovative strategies and community engagement. Real-world projects have shown that fog water collection can be an effective and sustainable solution, particularly in regions with persistent fog and limited water resources. However, more work is needed on innovative fog collectors and advanced materials to increase sustainability.

SUSTAINABLE GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT: EVALUATING LEGAL FRAMEWORK AND CHALLENGES

Groundwater is an essential resource for agriculture, drinking water, and industrial use, especially in water-scarce regions like India. However, unsustainable extraction, pollution, and a fragmented regulatory framework have resulted in significant groundwater depletion and contamination. This article presents a comprehensive analysis of the legal framework governing groundwater management in India, with a specific focus on its alignment with principles of sustainability and the challenges encountered in achieving Sustainable Development Goal 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation). The paper evaluates national and state-level laws, including the 2017 Model Groundwater Bill, and assesses the effectiveness of institutional mechanisms such as the Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA). The study also explores the role of judicial interventions in shaping groundwater governance and presents policy recommendations aimed at promoting sustainable groundwater use, ensuring equitable access, and protecting groundwater-dependent ecosystems. In doing so, the article emphasizes the need for an integrated approach that combines legal reforms and community-driven initiatives to safeguard groundwater resources for future generations.

The paradox of success: Water resources closure in Axarquia (southern Spain)

Axarquia is a semi-arid region in southern Spain that in the past 25 years has experienced significant population growth, along with an economic boom driven by an increasing influx of tourists to Costa del Sol and the expansion of irrigated export-oriented subtropical crops. The combination of these factors has led to a chronic structural scarcity condition that has been intensified by the occurrence of a long and extreme drought. As a result, its only reservoir has reached historically low levels and the piezometric levels in its main aquifer have decreased significantly, suggesting that groundwater reserves are being overexploited. The water crisis is impacting citizens (urban supply), farmers (losses of yields and crops), and the environment (decreasing water reserves). The authorities have responded through supply-side measures such as incorporating reclaimed wastewater in the system and planning the deployment of desalination infrastructure in the region, but demand control and proper governance are required to guarantee sustainability. Consequently, in this case study we apply the European Environment Agency's DPSIR (driving forces, pressures, state, impact, and response model of intervention) framework to understand the basin closure process in Axarquia and assess the main actions that have been undertaken by public and private sector stakeholders to address the challenges faced by the region. Our results provide a valuable reference case to support the analysis of similar closure events, the early identification of potential crisis conditions, and the design of potential solutions in water scarce regions in the European Union, the Mediterranean, and elsewhere.

Leafina: Potency of Kakawate leaves, fishbone meal and saba banana peel compost soil amendment to the water holding capacity of loam soil

In tropical regions like the Philippines, drought susceptibility is caused by high evaporation rates and poor soil water retention. To deal with this, soil amendments are crucial, enhancing soil properties to aid plant growth. In this study, LeaFiNa, a compost soil amendment composed of Kakawate leaves (KL), fishbone meal (FB), and Saba banana peels (BP) was introduced, aiming to boost soil water holding capacity (SWHC) of loam. Different LeaFiNa ratios were tested, including 3KL:1FB:2BP, 6KL:4FB:1BP, and 3KL:8FB:1BP, alongside vermicast and commercial soil amendment (neem cake) as positive controls, and plain loam soil as the negative control. Percolation method and pressure plate extraction was performed. One-way ANOVA showed a significant difference among the experimental treatments (α=0.05) in which 6KL:4FB:1BP ratio emerged with the highest SWHC of 49.60%. Meanwhile, Tukey’s HSD test revealed no significant difference between 6KL:4FB:1BP and vermicast, yet a significant difference with the negative control. Moreover, the experimental treatments, particulalry the 6KL:4FB:1BP, also exhibited ideal results on other SWHC parameters such as the soil moisture content at saturation and wilting points, and in terms of gravitational water and plant available water. These findings suggest the LeaFiNa’s potential in alleviating drought stress in tropical soils by enhancing water retention, offering promising outcomes for sustaining agricultural productivity in water-scarce regions.

Optimal orientation of efficacy metal fins to enhanced freshwater generation in solar distillers: An experimental study

The pressing issue of water scarcity in remote regions has stimulated the search for simple desalination techniques. Solar distillers represent one of the most important solutions in remote regions for producing freshwater, but they have low productivity. The efficient iron fins represent an effective solution to improve their freshwater productivity. However, due to the negative effect of the shadow resulting from the metal fins, the present study aims to obtain the optimal orientation of efficacy metal fins that achieves the highest productivity for solar stills. To achieve this, three solar distillers were designed and built with identical dimensions. The first distiller has vertically oriented iron fins incorporated with its basin. The second distiller has 45° inclined iron fins incorporated with its basin. But the third distiller is devoid of any iron fins and represents the reference case. Our findings revealed that the inclusion of iron fins, particularly inclined ones, significantly enhanced the yield of the solar still by 48.94 %. In contrast, the enhanced distiller with vertical fins showcased a 33.84 % increase in productivity compared to the reference distiller. Based on these results, we recommend adopting the 45° inclined metal fins to mitigate shading effects and achieve the highest productivity.

English

The issue of water scarcity in Pakistan is a significant challenge which is due to exacerbated population growth as well as increase in freshwater demand. The application of wastewater for irrigation, especially in semi-urban regions, can indeed be a practical solution due to its ready availability and affordability. While wastewater can serve as a valuable resource in water-scarce regions, its use must be carefully managed to minimize potential risks to plant health, soil fertility, and human well-being. A study was conducted aiming to assess the seasonal changes in physicochemical properties of irrigated wastewater and their influence on morphological, physiological and biochemical responses of sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.). Sugarcane plants were grown for consecutive two years in peri-urban agricultural areas near the water channels. Sugarcane plants were grown in two different fields and irrigation of the crop was done with wastewater and freshwater, respectively. Water (wastewater and freshwater) and plant samples were collected four times in a year in different seasons (winter, spring, summer, fall) for two consecutive years (2016-2017). All the collected data had been subjected to multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) for assessing the impact of seasonal variation on plant responses under the influence of irrigated wastewater. The findings from the study highlighted the complex relationship between wastewater irrigation and the physiological responses of sugarcane plants. The observed increase in antioxidant activities of wastewater irrigated plants compared to freshwater irrigated plants suggested that sugarcane may undergo biochemical adjustments to cope with the stress induced by the contaminants present in the wastewater. Moreover, the significant differences in plant mineral contents across different seasons were observed which indicated the dynamic nature of nutrient availability in the irrigation water and its impact on plant growth and development. We concluded that wastewater irrigation can affect the potential output of the agriculture sector by altering plant physiology which underscores the importance of considering the quality of irrigation water in agricultural practices. For future prospectives, the study can be extended to other crops to develop comprehensive strategies for sustainable agriculture.

Spatio-temporal variation of depth to groundwater level and its driving factors in arid and semi-arid regions of India

Climate change and increasing anthropogenic activities, such as over-exploitation of groundwater, are exerting unavoidable stress on groundwater resources. This study investigated the spatio-temporal variation of depth to groundwater level (DGWL) and the impacts of climatic (precipitation, maximum temperature, and minimum temperature) and anthropogenic (gross district product (GDP), population, and net irrigated area (NIA)) variables on DGWL during 1994–2020. The study considered DGWL in 113 observation wells and piezometers located in arid western plains (Barmer and Jodhpur districts) and semi-arid eastern plains (Jaipur, Ajmer, Dausa, and Tonk districts) of Rajasthan State, India. Statistical methods were employed to examine the annual and seasonal patterns of DGWL, and the generalized additive model (GAM) was used to determine the impacts of climatic and anthropogenic variables on DGWL. During 1994–2020, except for Barmer District, where the mean annual DGWL was almost constant (around 26.50 m), all other districts exhibited increase in DGWL, with Ajmer District experiencing the most increase. The results also revealed that 36 observation wells and piezometers showed a statistically significant annual increasing trend in DGWL and 34 observation wells and piezometers exhibited a statistically significant decreasing trend in DGWL. Similarly, 32 observation wells and piezometers showed an statistically significant increasing trend and 37 observation wells and piezometers showed a statistically significant decreasing trend in winter; 33 observation wells and piezometers indicated a statistically significant increasing trend and 34 had a statistically significant decreasing trend in post-monsoon; 35 observation wells and piezometers exhibited a statistically significant increasing trend and 32 observation wells and piezometers showed a statistically significant decreasing trend in pre-monsoon; and 36 observation wells and piezometers reflected a statistically significant increasing trend and 30 observation wells and piezometers reflected a statistically significant decreasing trend in monsoon. Interestingly, most of the observation wells and piezometers with increasing trends of DGWL were located in Dausa and Jaipur districts. Furthermore, the GAM analysis revealed that climatic variables, such as precipitation, significantly affected DGWL in Barmer District, and DGWL in all other districts was influenced by anthropogenic variables, including GDP, NIA, and population. As a result, stringent regulations should be implemented to curb excessive groundwater extraction, manage agricultural water demand, initiate proactive aquifer recharge programs, and strengthen sustainable management in these water-scarce regions.

Drought effects on growth, biochemical changes and leaf gas exchange in laurel (Laurus nobilis L.)

Abstract Drought is one of the abiotic factors that negatively affect the productivity of laurel (Laurus nobilis L.). Increasing water scarcity in arid and semi-arid regions is pushing the physiological limits of woody species, necessitating strong resistance to drought. Studies should be conducted on the effects of drought stress not only on forest trees but also some medicinal and ornamental species, and ways to increase their resistance should be explored. This study was carried out to determine the effect of drought stress on seedling growth and some physiological and biochemical properties in laurel. The seedlings were subjected to drought stress for about 4 months with three different irrigation regimes: watering once every 2–3 days (control), every 15 days, and every 30 days. Morphological properties (root collar diameter, height, dry weight, stem: root ratio, and number of leaves), physiological properties (midday xylem water potential and photosynthesis properties), and biochemical properties (photosynthetic pigments, total carbohydrate, and proline contents) were determined. Results have shown that drought stress has a negative effect on root collar diameter, seedling height, and dry weight. Likewise, leaf number and midday xylem water potential decreased due to increased drought stress. Furthermore, the net photosynthesis rate, stomatal conductance, and transpiration rate of the least irrigated (30th day) seedlings were quite low compared to those of control seedlings. The differences in chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll, and carotenoid contents were also found to be statistically significant. Total carbohydrate and proline contents showed the highest values for the least irrigated seedlings and the lowest values for controlled irrigation seedlings. Our results reflect the improved tolerance capacity of laurel to increased drought stress.

The poverty of sustainability: behavioral choices of drinking water in Kenya and Germany

Worldwide countries are engaged in technological improvements, changes in legislation, economic incentives, strengthened administrative structures, and political strategies to allocate and distribute water among different sections of the population. These macro measures treat water as an object of social, cultural, and environmental production unit for distribution and allocation, distancing it from the micro behavioral practices of drinking water. The poverty of sustainability stems from the gap between macro instrumental measures and the inner human dimensions that determine the micro practices. This paper explores the disconnect between macro sustainability measures and the micro practice of drinking water choice among individuals and their motives in the city of Nakuru in Kenya and the state of North Rhine-Westphalia in Germany. Both Kenya and Germany have developed top-down policies with a fix-it mindset. Kenya aims to provide drinking water to its population through piped network technology despite being a water-scarce region with inadequate housing and governance. In contrast, Germany, which is rich in water resources with highly regulated governance arrangements, spends billions treating water to attain drinking water quality only for most citizens to buy bottled water to drink. Despite water resources being finite, both of these nations source additional water through instrumental approaches to satisfy the demands of the materialistic world. In this context, the challenge of overcoming the poverty of sustainability remains a topic of debate that can be ameliorated by complementing scientific approaches with nonscientific knowledge and practices.

Water Resources Management In Small Islands: A Review of Public Policy Implementation In The Development of Lekloor Reservoir, Nomaha Island

Water scarcity in small island regions, including Kisar Island in Maluku, presents a pressing issue due to inadequate water resource management. This article aims to describe a holistic approach to addressing the challenges of water resource management and water scarcity on Kisar Island, Maluku. The research methodology employed is a mixed-method approach, combining technical feasibility studies for reservoir technology, policy analysis through literature reviews, and field assessments to evaluate the topographic, hydrological, and environmental conditions of Kisar Island. In the technical context, the article analyzes reservoir technology as a solution to address water issues, supported by the topographic and hydrological characteristics of Kisar Island. Additionally, the article examines relevant public policies, such as Government Regulation No. 7 of 2013 on National Spatial Planning, Provincial Regulation No. 16 of 2013 on Provincial Spatial Planning in Maluku, and District Regulation No. 1 of 2023 on District Spatial Planning in Maluku Barat Daya. Through this review, the article highlights the crucial role of policy in establishing a supportive framework for water resource management. Furthermore, the importance of local community participation in water resource management on Kisar Island is emphasized, asserting that active engagement from the local community is key to achieving success in sustainable water management efforts.

Equal allocation, demand priority or negotiated allocation? How to allocate water resources in the Tigris and Euphrates River Basin efficiently

The Tigris and Euphrates River Basin is an important water supply, but it suffers from water scarcity. It is necessary to carry out reasonable allocation of water resources in this region. Since water resources issues in this region are of multinational interest, international cooperative distribution efforts are needed. Common water resources allocation modes include equal allocation, demand priority or negotiation allocation. In order to derive the applicable range of various water resources allocation modes, this article constructs three differential game models and compares and analyzes the equilibrium results obtained by the models. Finally, the study shows that when the cost of developing water resources is small and the revenue obtained from developing water resources is large, the water-scarce region can obtain the maximum benefit by adopting the demand priority mode. Otherwise, the water-scarce region can obtain the maximum benefit by adopting the negotiation allocation mode. This study can inform the allocation, strategic interaction and cooperation of dynamic water resources in the two river basins.

Improved Design and Economic Estimation of Cold-End Systems for Inland Nuclear Power Plants

Improved Design and Economic Estimation of Cold-End Systems for Inland Nuclear Power Plants

Cropping calendar, agroclimatic and agroecological zoning for rainfed maize (Zea mays L.) under different rainfall scenarios in a semi-arid region of Brazil

Context The productivity of crops is influenced by the available net water balance, which relies on a complex interplay of edaphic and climatic factors. In this sense, rainfall is the leading water input for crop growth and yield, especially in water-scarce regions under semi-arid climates worldwide. Aims This study aimed to define the optimum cropping calendar and the agroclimatic and agroecological zones for rainfed maize in the state of Ceará, which is predominantly located within the Brazilian semi-arid region, assuming different rainfall scenarios. Methods We considered the subdivision of the study area into eight homogeneous precipitation regions according to the regional rainfall pattern. The climatic water balance for each region over two decades was calculated from historical weather data series, assuming three rainy scenarios: dry, regular, and rainy. The agroclimatic zoning was defined through the crop water balance results, soil classification, land use and occupation, slope and temperature, weighted through a multi-criteria decision analysis based on the Analytic Hierarchy Process. Key results The recommended planting period was broader in rainy conditions. However, there may be some dry spells between two 10-day intervals of the calendar, which impair plant growth depending on their intensity. For the dry scenario, the agroclimatic zoning showed that the marginal water deficiency covered 96.55% of the study area. Conclusions Rainfed maize cultivated under the semi-arid climate of Ceará state is viable in rainy conditions, partially restricted in regular years, and not recommended in dry years. Implications This study emphasises the importance of climate monitoring in effective planning for rainfed maize cultivation in semi-arid regions.

Resources recovery-rubidium recovery from desalination brine through hydrometallurgy techniques

Because of the water scarcity in many regions, different methods have been implemented to address this problem. The desalination technique is known as a practical solution among them. However, brine from the desalination process, which contains high concentrations of salts, minerals, and chemicals, will cause environmental harm to the sea, soil, and groundwater if it is not properly treated. Therefore, recovering critical resources from brine is essential for reducing brine disposal. This study aims to apply two hydrometallurgy systems, namely ion exchange and ionic liquid extraction, to circulate rubidium resources from brine. Dowex G26 resin was employed in the ion exchange system, and the adsorption isotherm model and saturated adsorption capacity were explored initially. The optimal parameters such as pH value, L/S ratio (liquid/solid), adsorption period, and adsorption temperature will then be investigated. In the ionic liquid extraction process, the t-BAMBP/C2mimNTf2 system (4-tert-Butyl-2-(α-methylbenzyl) phenol/1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethyls​ulfonyl)​imide) was used, and the parameters including pH value, concentrations of t-BAMBP, (O + I)/A ratio (organic + ionic liquid/aqueous), extraction time, and extraction temperature will be optimized as well. The results reveal that adsorption capacity and extraction efficiencies were 14.3 mg g− 1 and 86%, respectively. Furthermore, suitable reagents, including HCl and HNO3, were applied to desorb and strip rubidium from the Dowex G26 and t-BAMBP/C2mimNTf2 systems. To sum up, environmental hazards of desalination brine and rubidium resources can be reduced and recovered through the two different extraction systems.

Drip-tape irrigation depth: water use efficiency, yield and forage quality in maize

Objective: to evaluate the effect of the drip-tape irrigation depth on the efficiency of water use, yield, nutritional quality and profitability of forage maize, a study was established by installing drip-tape at a depths 0.05, 0.15 and 0.30 meters. Design/ Methodology/ Approach: a randomized block experimental design was used. Treatments evaluated consisted of the installation of drip-tape at three depths 0.05, 0.15 and 0.30 m; each treatment in three replicates. The experimental unit was a 15 m2 surface (comprising four 5m-long furrows, with a 0.76 m separation between furrows). Results: results showed that with the drip-tape installed at a depth of 0.15 m, the highest biomass production and water use efficiency were obtained, without modifying the bromatological quality of the forage. However, the best benefit-cost ratio corresponded to the drip-tape installed at 0.3 m, recovering $1.27 for each MXN peso invested in crop production. Limitations/ Implications of the study: water scarcity in arid and semi-arid regions is a global problem, so it is necessary to use irrigation methods that make water use more efficient without reducing crop yield. Findings/conclusions: the installation of the drip-tape at a depth of 0.15 m is recommended, due to the improvement in yield and water use efficiency without affecting nutritional quality of the forage or profitability of maize crop.

Is the World Running Out of Fresh Water?

The quantity of water within Earth and its atmosphere is fixed over time, but water available for human consumption evolves dynamically. We use globally comprehensive geospatial data to establish stylized facts about recent changes in global water resources and potential implications for human welfare. We show that the net change in water volume on arable lands—which account for 90 percent of human water consumption—is almost exactly zero. Rapid water loss is concentrated in regions with large populations, low existing water resources, and low agronomic potential. Incorporating trade data shows that water-scarce regions are net importers of water-intensive goods.

Assessing groundwater quality in semi-arid conditions: a geographic information systems-integrated approach using water quality index

Meeting freshwater demands in water-scarce regions is imperative, given challenges like hydric stress, urbanization, aridity, and population growth. This study focuses on the Tebessa aquifer system, a critical water source facing escalating demands. A primary objective is to identify actionable management strategies to improve groundwater quality dynamics in semi-arid regions. The methodology involves a comprehensive assessment of groundwater health using the Water Quality Index (WQI) approach. This method integrates diverse parameters influenced by intensive agricultural and industrial activities. Additionally, spatial relationship analysis, facilitated by Geographic Information System (GIS) technology, is employed to gain insights into complex hydrogeological processes. The multi-parameter strategy implemented results in water quality maps that highlight various ions, revealing spatial disparities and assigning quality priority classes from 'Good' to 'Poor' across the groundwater. The research, conducted in the semi-arid Tebessa-Morsott Plain, encompasses field and laboratory investigations to delineate hydrochemical traits, including alkalinity, salinity, and heightened ion concentrations. The results of the study contribute to scientific understanding by uncovering interrelationships and spatial intricacies, offering valuable insights for water resource governance. The effectiveness of the methodology, incorporating WQI and GIS, is demonstrated in the comprehensive evaluation of groundwater quality. Ultimately, this research provides a foundation for informed decision-making and sustainable management of groundwater resources in semi-arid regions.

Effect of Mixing Ratio of Super Absorbent Materials on the Growth and Yield of Bell Pepper in the Ferric Luvisols of Mogotio, Kenya

Agriculture in arid and semi-arid regions (ASALs) faces challenges due to limited water and problematic soils. This study investigates the potential of superabsorbent materials like Super Absorbent Polymers (SAPs) and pumice to enhance water retention and agricultural productivity in Ngubreti in Mogotio Sub-County, Kenya, representing ASALs. Using a randomized design with different material ratios and a control group, the research analysed soil parameters and plant growth indicators. Incorporating superabsorbent materials increased soil porosity, reduced bulk density, and improved water retention. Bell pepper production notably increased by 53.4%, with the SAP Pumice Double Half (SPDH) treatment showing the highest yield. This research underscores superabsorbent materials' ability to enhance ASAL soil conditions and agricultural output, particularly SPDH treatment. Precise material concentration control and consideration of their impact on soil penetration rates are crucial for optimal results. The study contributes to sustainable agriculture in water-scarce regions, emphasizing soil management's role in crop productivity. Further research and region-specific experiments are needed for broader applicability. Farmers are advised to assess their soil characteristics and consider a recommended median soil-additives mixing ratio of 1:833. Long-term effectiveness warrants additional investigation

Assessment of satellite-based water requirements for a drip-irrigated apple orchard in Mediterranean agroclimatic conditions

Accurate assessment of evapotranspiration (ETa) and crop coefficient (Kc) is crucial for optimizing irrigation practices in water-scarce regions. While satellite-based surface energy balance models offer a promising solution, their application to sparse canopies like apple orchards requires specific validation. This study investigated the spatial and temporal dynamics of ETa and Kc in a drip-irrigated ‘Pink Lady’ apple orchard under Mediterranean conditions over three growing seasons (2012/13, 2013/14, 2014/15). The METRIC model, incorporating calibrated sub-models for leaf area index (LAI), surface roughness (Zom), and soil heat flux (G), was employed to estimate ETa and Kc. These estimates were validated against field-scale Eddy Covariance data. Results indicated that METRIC overpredicted Kc and ETa with errors less than 10 %. These findings highlight the potential of the calibrated METRIC model as a valuable decision-making tool for irrigation management in apple orchards.

Integration of sequential electrocoagulation and adsorption for effective removal of colour and total organic carbon in textile effluents and its utilization for seed germination and irrigation.

Textile effluent discharge can negatively impact the environment and living organisms due to its potential toxicity, higher percentages of total organic carbon (TOC) contents, and so on. The study investigates the extraordinary performance of the electrocoagulation process (ECP) combined with powdered activated carbon (PAC) as a highly effective and environmental friendly method of treating textile effluents. This scientific work mainly includes the focus on removing toxic components in textile effluents, such as high concentrations of colour and TOC using synthesized PAC derived from coconut shells coupled with the ECP (ECP-PAC). Initially, PAC was characterized by using XRD, Raman, BET, FTIR, and TGA studies. Subsequently, the pilot-scale ECP-PAC batch reactor was constructed with iron (Fe) as an anode and copper (Cu) as a cathode. The pilot-scale ECP-PAC batch reactor has achieved higher treatment efficiency in a shorter reaction time with low energy consumption compared to a stand-alone ECP. Further, the optimum conditions for effective ECP-PAC have been optimized, such as pH 7.5, applied current density (0-50mA/cm2), reaction time (0-30min), electrode combinations (Fe-Cu) with electrode distances of 5cm apart, and an optimum dose of 5g/L of PAC. Specifically, 98% of the colour and 96% of the TOC contents present in the industrial textile effluent were treated in 15 and 30min, respectively. In quantitative perspectives, the developed batch reactor has sharply decreased TOC (324.1mg/L), IC (1410mg/L) and TC (1019mg/L) to 13.55mg/L (96%), 31.49mg/L (97%), and 48.05mg/L (95%), respectively, in 30min demonstrating its sensitivity and selectivity with the utmost care. Moreover, the physicochemical properties of the treated water were convincingly assessed. That is, it remains suitable for the seed germination of mung bean and chlorophyll content study. Thus, the developed methodology could effectively reduce freshwater consumption in the agricultural sector, increase freshwater availability in water-scarce regions, and facilitate the increase of the recharging capacity of groundwater tables.