Household Water Quality Research Articles

Household stored water quality in an intermittent water supply network in Panama

Abstract Safe water storage is critical to preserve water quality, especially when intermittent piped drinking water supply creates a need for household storage. This study characterized household storage practices and stored water quality in 94 households (N = 94) among four peri-urban neighborhoods in Arraiján, Panama with varying degrees of supply intermittency. We found that 18 (19.1%) households stored drinking water in unsafe containers. Forty-four (47%) samples of household stored drinking water had residual chlorine levels <0.2 mg/L. While 33 (35.1%) samples were positive for total coliform bacteria, only 23 (24.4%) had >10 most probable number (MPN)/100 mL total coliform bacteria. Eight (44%) samples were positive for Escherichia coli, whereas only one (1.3%) sample from the safe containers was positive. Twenty-nine (30.9%) samples had >500 MPN/mL heterotrophic plate count bacteria. These findings suggest that longer supply interruptions were associated with longer storage times and lower chlorine residual, which were associated with higher concentrations of indicator bacteria. This is one of the first studies in the Central-American region to show an association between the lack of turnover (replacement with fresh water) and greater contamination during household water storage. Thus, when drinking water supply is not completely continuous and household storage is required, decreasing the time between supply periods can facilitate safer water storage. Public awareness and education are also recommended to increase hygiene practices during water collection and storage.

Assessing Strontium and Vulnerability to Strontium in Private Drinking Water Systems in Virginia

A total of 1.7 million Virginians rely on private drinking water (PDW) systems and 1.3 million of those people do not know their water quality. Because most Virginians who use PDW do not know the quality of that water and since strontium poses a public health risk, this study investigates sources of strontium in PDW in Virginia and identifies the areas and populations most vulnerable. Physical factors such as rock type, rock age, and fertilizer use have been linked to elevated strontium concentrations in drinking water. Social factors such as poverty, poor diet, and adolescence also increase social vulnerability to health impacts of strontium. Using water quality data from the Virginia Household Water Quality Program (VAHWQP) and statistical and spatial analyses, physical vulnerability was found to be highest in the Ridge and Valley province of Virginia where agricultural land use and geologic formations with high strontium concentrations (e.g., limestone, dolomite, sandstone, shale) are the dominant aquifer rocks. In terms of social vulnerability, households with high levels of strontium are more likely than the average VAHWQP participant to live in a food desert. This study provides information to help 1.7 million residents of Virginia, as well as populations in neighboring states, understand their risk of exposure to strontium in PDW.

Springing for Safe Water: Drinking Water Quality and Source Selection in Central Appalachian Communities

Issues surrounding water infrastructure, access, and quality are well documented in the Central Appalachian region of the United States. Even in cases where residents have in-home piped point-of-use (POU) water, some rely on alternative drinking water sources for daily needs—including water collection from roadside springs. This effort aims to better understand and document spring usage in this region by identifying the factors that influence drinking water source selection and comparing household and spring water quality to Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) health-based and aesthetic contaminant recommendations. Households were recruited from communities surrounding known springs in three states (Kentucky, Virginia, and West Virginia). First- and second-draw, in-home POU tap water samples were collected from participating households and compared to samples collected from local springs on the same day. Samples were analyzed for fecal indicator bacteria and inorganic ions. Study participants completed surveys to document perceptions of household drinking water and typical usage. The majority of survey participants (82.6%) did not trust their home tap water due to aesthetic issues. Water quality results suggested that fecal indicator bacteria were more common in spring water, while several metallic ions were recovered in higher concentrations from household samples. These observations highlight that health risks and perceptions may be different between sources.

Comparing the Bacteriological and Physicochemical Properties of House-hold Drinking Water in Uli and Assessing the Associated Public Health Implications

A study of the comparative analysis of house-hold drinking water quality in Uli, Anambra State was carried out in the Microbiology Laboratory of Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Uli to evaluate the water, with a view to assessing the public health implication of water from these sources. Trips were made to living homes to obtain samples of their drinking water. Twenty Samples were used for the study. Ten samples were collected from homes that drank straight from the boreholes. Five samples were collected from those that drank sachet water and five from those that drank bottled water. Microbiological and physicochemical parameters were utilized using standard methods. Most probable number (MPN) technique was employed in the bacteriological analysis of the water samples. Biochemical tests were utilized in the identification of the microorganisms. Results based on the cultural, morphological and biochemical characteristics, revealed the samples to contain three isolates identified as Escherichiacoli, Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella sp. The pH of all the treated water samples were neutral, pH of the borehole water samples was neutral. The temperature of the sachet water samples ranged between 22.5 – 23.5 whereas that the borehole water samples were 22°C – 22.2°C respectively. The total dissolved solid of the treated water samples ranged between 0.82mg/1 and 1.60mg/1, whereas that of the borehole water samples ranged between 7.07 – 20mg/l. The total suspended solids of the treated water samples were not detected whereas that of the borehole water samples ranged between 31 – 55mg/l. Results from total coliform counts for the samples were highest in the boreholes with a total coliform count of 2.4MPN per ml. Faecal coliform count was highest in the borehole samples. The presence of high faecal coliform count in the borehole samples could be attributed to the proximity of the boreholes to pit latrines at distances less than the 30m. This does not conform with WHO recommendations for safe drinking water. From the results, all the untreated drinking water sampled from Uli were unfit for human consumption. This could be responsible for the incessant gastroenteritis, staphylococcal toxic shock syndrome, dysentery and Klebsiella pneumonia observed in Uli and environs. This study suggests that all the drinking water from various sources used by the inhabitants of Uli and environs should be treated before drinking.

Urban domestic water supply crisis in the city of Gweru, Zimbabwe

The research assessed the urban domestic water supply crisis in Gweru’s Mkoba 19 suburb. The descriptive case study research design was used as it enabled accurate portrayal of the water supply situation in Mkoba 19. Qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection were used incorporating questionnaire surveys, household water quality tests, interviews and field observations. Sixty-four questionnaires were administered to Mkoba 19 residents who were selected through the use of stratified random sampling technique. Purposive sampling was used to select key informants. Convenience sampling was used to select households for water quality sampling. Results revealed that water supply to Mkoba 19 varies within the suburb depending on elevation with the most elevated parts of the suburb hardly receiving any water. The difference between samples tested for coliforms, E. coli, turbidity and residual chlorine collected from Mkoba 19 and the control suburb, Mkoba 16 proved to be significant [p < 0.05; (total coliforms p = 0.03; E. coli p = 0.03; turbidity p = 0.02; residual chlorine p = 0.04)]. The results showed that there is a relationship between intermittent water supply and water quality. Chi square test proved that there was a strong positive association (p < 0.05; p = 0.018) between household income and the type of coping strategy adopted by households. The study recommends the renovation and maintenance of the water distribution system in Gweru to improve the quantity and quality of water supply to Mkoba 19.

Effective alleviation of rural poverty depends on the interplay between productivity, nutrients, water and soil quality

Most of the world's poorest people come from rural areas and depend on their local ecosystems for food production. Recent research has highlighted the importance of self-reinforcing dynamics between low soil quality and persistent poverty but little is known on how they affect poverty alleviation. We investigate how the intertwined dynamics of household assets, nutrients (especially phosphorus), water and soil quality influence food production and determine the conditions for escape from poverty for the rural poor. We have developed a suite of dynamic, multidimensional poverty trap models of households that combine economic aspects of growth with ecological dynamics of soil quality, water and nutrient flows to analyze the effectiveness of common poverty alleviation strategies such as intensification through agrochemical inputs, diversification of energy sources and conservation tillage. Our results show that (i) agrochemical inputs can reinforce poverty by degrading soil quality, (ii) diversification of household energy sources can create possibilities for effective application of other strategies, and (iii) sequencing of interventions can improve effectiveness of conservation tillage. Our model-based approach demonstrates the interdependence of economic and ecological dynamics which preclude blanket solution for poverty alleviation. Stylized models as developed here can be used for testing effectiveness of different strategies given biophysical and economic settings in the target region.

Household Water Quality Testing and Information: Identifying Impacts on Health Outcomes and Sanitation- and Hygiene-Related Risk-Mitigating Behaviors.

In 2014, a group of 512 households in multipurpose water systems and also relying on unimproved water, sanitation, and hygiene practices in the Greater Accra region of Ghana were randomly selected to participate in water quality self-testing and also receipt of information in the form of handouts on how to improve water quality. Using a cluster-randomized controlled design, we study the health, sanitation, and hygiene behavior impacts of the household water quality testing and information experiment. The study has three arms: (1) adult household members, (2) schoolgoing children, and (3) control group. The study measures the effects on handwashing with soap, cleanliness of households, and prevalence of diarrhea and self-reported fever. We also address impacts on child health and nutrition outcomes, particularly diarrhea and anthropometric outcomes. We show that there is high household willingness to participate in this intervention on water quality self-testing. About 7 months after households took part in the intervention, the study finds little impacts on health outcomes and on sanitation- and hygiene-related risk-mitigating behaviors, regardless of the intervention group, either schoolchildren or adult household members. Impacts (direction and extent) are rather homogeneous for most of the outcomes across treatment groups. The study discusses the implications of the findings and also offers several explanations for the lack of transmission of impacts from the household water quality testing and information intervention on health outcomes and on sanitation and hygiene behaviors.

Operational research on rural, community-managed Water Safety Plans: Case study results from implementations in India, DRC, Fiji, and Vanuatu

Water Safety Plans (WSPs) are internationally recommended risk assessment and management strategies for water delivery. However, documented outcomes and impacts from implementing WSPs are lacking, particularly for community-managed supplies. In this research, previously implemented, community-managed WSPs were evaluated in four countries through a mixed-methods protocol assessing: WSP implementation quality, WSP management via key informant interviews (KII) and focus group discussions (FGD), household characteristics, and collection-point and stored household water quality in WSP and non-WSP communities. Overall, 256 KIIs and FGDs, 816 household surveys, and 1,099 water quality samples were completed. The quality of WSP implementations scored 6–13 out of 18 possible points. KIIs and FGDs found WSP communities had improved capacity to manage water supplies and identify key risks to safe water delivery. Fewer non-WSP community households reported paying for water in DRC and Vanuatu (p < 0.001). WSP community water collection-points had more E. coli contamination than non-WSP community collection-points in DRC (p = 0.009), Fiji (p = 0.020), and Vanuatu (p = 0.004); household results varied, although exploratory analysis revealed that non-WSP communities were imperfectly matched to WSP communities. Overall, we found: 1) incomplete WSP implementations; 2) small improvements in water supply operations; and, 3) no documented microbiological water quality improvements from WSPs. These results highlight that WSPs implemented in rural, community-managed supplies are challenging and question their effectiveness; if implemented additional technical and financial resources are necessary to support community-managed WSPs.

Assessing the effect of irrigation on household water quality and health: A case study in rural Ethiopia

ABSTRACT In areas with inadequate improved water supply, irrigation water serves as an alternative water source for domestic uses in addition to its prime purpose of agricultural production. This increased water availability for the household can generate positive hygiene and health impacts, but poor irrigation water quality can be a source of domestic water contamination and can be harmful to human health. Using primary household survey data from two rural districts of Ethiopia, this study seeks to disentangle these opposite effects: the results show that irrigation is associated with poor household water quality (adjusted odds ratio 1.68, 95%, CI 1.07–2.66) and a lower risk of diarrheal disease (adjusted odds ratio 2.07, 95%, CI 1.24–3.44). Domestic use of irrigation water, however, does not further degrade the microbial quality of household water. On the other hand, the domestic use of irrigation water reduces the burden of water collection (p < 0.01). Providing education and training programs to foster behavioral change towards sustainable improvements in water resource management, such as the safe use of irrigation water for domestic purposes through appropriate point-of-use water treatment, would be crucial to maximize the benefits of the domestic use of irrigation water and to minimize adverse environmental and health risks.

Improving Water Access and Health through Rainwater Harvesting: Perceptions of an Indigenous Community in Jalisco, Mexico

This article presents a mixed methods case study of an isolated indigenous community (the Wixaritari) in Jalisco state, Mexico, where the patterns of access to water have been changing due to Rainwater Harvesting Systems (RWHSs). The lack of water in this region is extremely precarious; women and children spend approximately one to three hours a day fetching water, and families live with less than 20 L per person/day. To better understand the relationship between water access and health derived from the use of RWHSs, we first analyzed epidemiological data (2014–2017) from cases of Acute Diarrheal Diseases (ADDs) and household water quality. Next, we surveyed households on water access after the introduction of RWHSs, including questions about perceptions of health problems associated with water. The results revealed that the introduction of RWHSs water access in this community has increased quantitatively and qualitatively and the incidence of ADDs has decreased significantly. However, the surveys and interviews indicate a disconnect between the incidence of ADDs and perceptions of health problems. We conclude that RWHSs can have tangible benefits, but they can be potentially undermined by perceptions of communities that have different understandings of the cause of disease.

Performance of black ceramic water filters and their implementation in rural Ecuador

Abstract In rural Ecuador, microbial water contamination is associated with child morbidity mainly due to gastroenteritis. Black ceramic water filters (BCWF) are a new household water treatment recently developed to improve microbial removal from the classical model implemented worldwide. This study has assessed BCWF microbial performance at laboratory level by continuous filtering of spiked water with microbial surrogates (Escherichia coli and MS2 bacteriophage) and highly contaminated surface water to evaluate physicochemical pollutants' removal. At field level, baseline studies in Nanegal and Gualea districts have been performed to evaluate water quality and hygiene practices among communities and a six-month BCWF field implementation study in the Santa Marianita community. Results revealed poor drinking water quality in communities studied. Water treatment practices at household level were reported in low percentages. Conversely, results in BCWF filter assays at laboratory level for 600 litres of usage have shown 5.36 logarithms of bacterial removal and 3.83 logarithms for viral removal and significant reductions of physicochemical pollutants considering international standards. BCWF implementation in the Santa Marianita community reveals promising results on microbial water quality in households using this new technology. However, it is important to reinforce correct BCWF maintenance for better performance at field level.

Factors affecting microbiological quality of household drinking water supplied by small-scale ultrafiltration systems: A field study

Small scale ultrafiltration (UF) systems have been increasingly used in rural areas for drinking water supply, but their effectiveness in guarantying microbiological water safety at household level has rarely been assessed. Therefore, this study surveyed six representative villages where UF was utilized for full-scale drinking water supply for at least four years. At each village, the influent and the effluent from every stages of the treatment, as well as household tap water, were sampled and analyzed for microbiological indicating parameters, including total coliform count, Escherichia coli count, and heterotrophic plate count. The results were further assessed against current drinking water quality guidelines and standards. It was found that: (1) the qualification rate of household tap water samples varied substantially in the studied villages (0–75%), mainly due to the lack of post-disinfection and the occurrence of fecal contamination during water distribution; (2) UF appeared to be effective in controlling microbial contamination for small-scale systems with high-quality source water, while for systems using inferior source water, fecal contamination during water distribution necessitated continuous post-disinfection; and, (3) existing monitoring of membrane operational parameters cannot ensure microbial quality of treated water, and therefore, routine monitoring of microbial indicators in household water is recommended.

The WASH Benefits and SHINE Trials. Interpretation of Findings on Linear Growth and Diarrhoea and Implications for Policy: Perspective of the Investigative Teams (P10-136-19)

ObjectivesWe recently completed 3 efficacy trials (Bangladesh, Kenya, Zimbabwe) testing the independent and combined effects of improved complementary feeding (CF) and intensive household water quality, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) on child diarrhea and length-for-age-Z-score (LAZ) at 18 to 24 mo. Intervention uptake was high. In all three trials: CF increased LAZ but WASH had no effect on LAZ. WASH reduced diarrhea in Bangladesh but not in Kenya or Zimbabwe. We present a synthesis of trial findings and their implications. MethodsReviews of the literature and reanalyses of trial data were conducted. ResultsWASH and stunting: Copious observational studies have demonstrated a strong association between household-level WASH and child LAZ. We conducted an observational anlaysis (nested birth cohort) from our control arms. In adjusted analyses of all three trials, having an improved latrine when the pregnant woman was enrolled was associated with ∼0.2LAZ increase in her child at 18–24 mo. The frequently reported association between household WASH indicators and child growth may be confounded and drawing causal inferance misguided.WASH and diarrhea: Promoters visited intervention households 6 times per month in Bangladesh and monthly in Kenya and Zimbabwe. We conducted a systematic literature review: virtually all evidence that household water chlorination and handwashing reduce diarrhea comes from studies with daily to fortnightly intervention contact. In studies with follow-up after the trial ending, behaviors steeply declined and the effect on child diarrhea disappeared. Household water chlorination and handwashing promotion implemented through sporadic message delivery may not reduce child diarrhea.Enteropathogen transmission: Despite achieving substantial contrast between WASH and non-WASH households, children in the WASH arms still experienced high enteropathogen transmission, illustrating the recalcitrance of pervasive fecal contamination in rural low-income communities to even intense intervention. ConclusionsHousehold WASH interventions are unlikely to reduce child stunting and may not reduce child diarrhea. We call for substantial investment in research to identify and in programming to deliver much more efficacious interventions. Funding SourcesBill & Melinda Gates Foundation, USAID, DFID/UKAID, Wellcome Trust.

Perception of groundwater quality and health effects on willingness to procure: The case of upcoming water supply scheme in Guwahati, India

Many government water supply schemes fail in terms of public acceptance, primarily due to lack of public awareness, transparency on water tariff policy, and angst of water privatization. The present work attempts to identify failure factors taking into account on existing household water quality and importance of awareness programs through a case study of an upcoming government water supply scheme, which is facing stiff public resistance. The study aims to assess public perception on existing groundwater quality and acceptance of a paid water supply scheme over conventionally used free groundwater, through a comparative study on number of household's willingness to procure water, before and after groundwater quality awareness program. A questionnaire survey, groundwater sample collection and laboratory analysis of 1568 (sample size determined statistically) household groundwater samples was conducted. Laboratory analysis revealed that 55%, 12% and 9% of groundwater samples exceeded WHO guidelines for iron, fluoride, and arsenic, respectively. The public perception on groundwater quality found far away from reality, only 3–4% people were aware of contamination and the rationale for public opposition were more of public misconception and/or in erudite nature. Public awareness on groundwater quality and its adverse health effects were found to be the most influencing factors affecting public willingness to procure (WtP) that improved from 58 to 74% after creating awareness. The findings of public WtP were fortified by logistic regression model which uncovered interesting trend of public hesitation and explicitly thrown light upon sensibility of people who disclosed their income during survey.

An assessment of household water quality among Peace Corps volunteers in Guatemala

BackgroundGastrointestinal (GI) illness is the most commonly reported health concern among Peace Corps Volunteers (PCVs) serving in Guatemala. This project identified water types and treatment and storage practices used by PCVs and measured select water quality parameters in their household water.MethodsA survey about water types and practices was conducted of PCVs in Guatemala. The water type most frequently consumed in the household (“primary drinking water”) and other water types present in the household (“secondary water”) were tested for free chlorine residual (FCR) and for the presence of Escherichia coli and total coliforms. A negative binomial regression model was used to analyze data on incidence of self-reported GI illness.ResultsTambo (commercially purified water in a 5-gal bottle) was the water type most frequently (64%) reported as primary drinking water in 39 PCV households. Most (74%) PCVs reported drinking water other than primary drinking water ≥1 day per week; the incidence rate of GI illness per PCV per month was significantly lower among PCVs who reported never consuming water other than primary drinking water compared to those who did (0.4 and 1.6 GI illnesses per PCV per month, respectively) (p < 0.05). E. coli was not detected in any primary drinking water sample, but was detected in 35% of secondary water samples. Total coliforms were detected in more than two-thirds of primary drinking water and secondary water samples. Nearly all water samples had an FCR of < 0.2 mg/L.ConclusionsConsuming primary drinking water exclusively likely contributes to reducing the rate of GI illness among PCVs. However, most PCVs reported drinking multiple water types, which may include contaminated secondary water types in the household. All water intended for consumption, including secondary sources within and outside the household, should be properly treated and safely stored.

Acceptability, effectiveness, and fouling of PointOne membrane filters distributed in South Sudan

Abstract The Sawyer PointOne™ household hollow fiber membrane filter (PointOne) efficaciously removes microbiological indicators in the laboratory, and is increasingly considered for emergency response. To our knowledge, PointOne effectiveness in emergencies had not been evaluated. In South Sudan, 773 PointOnes were distributed. For 13 months after distribution, household surveys were completed quarterly, water quality testing was conducted monthly, and post-mortem analysis was completed at study midline to assess acceptability, effectiveness, and membrane fouling, respectively. Recipients found PointOnes acceptable, with high rates of demonstrated correct use (97–100%) and correct backflushing (96–100%). PointOnes effectively reduced thermotolerant coliforms for four months. When surface water use increased, effectiveness dropped, with 38% of filtrate samples contaminated. After backflushing filters with 0.2% chlorine solution, effectiveness improved; however, 5–38% of PointOne filtrate samples remained contaminated over subsequent months. Irreversible fouling was documented during post-mortem analysis. These results highlight that while PointOnes can improve household water quality within an emergency, PointOnes can foul within 4–6 months of use, depending on influent water quality. It is recommended that future PointOne distributions include continuous monitoring and an appropriate cleaning regime, based on influent water quality, to ensure continued performance. Further research on source water quality impacts on PointOne performance is recommended.

Effects of improved drinking water quality on early childhood growth in rural Uttar Pradesh, India: A propensity-score analysis.

ContextRecent randomised controlled trials in Bangladesh and Kenya concluded that household water treatment, alone or in combination with upgraded sanitation and handwashing, did not reduce linear growth faltering or improve other child growth outcomes. Whether these results are applicable in areas with distinct constellations of water, sanitation and hygiene (WaSH) risks is unknown. Analysis of observational data offers an efficient means to assess the external validity of trial findings. We studied whether a water quality intervention could improve child growth in a rural Indian setting with higher levels of circulating pathogens than the original trial sites.MethodsWe analysed a cross-sectional dataset including a microbiological measure of household water quality. All households accessed water from an improved source. We applied propensity score methods to emulate a randomised trial investigating the hypothesis that receipt of drinking water meeting Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6.1 quality standards for absence of faecal contamination leads to improved growth. Growth outcomes (stunting, underweight, wasting, and their corresponding Z-scores) were assessed in children 12–23 months of age. For each outcome, we estimated the mean and 95% confidence interval of the absolute risk difference between treatment groups.FindingsOf 1088 households, 442 (40.62%) received drinking water meeting SDG 6.1 standards. The adjusted risk of child underweight was 7.4% (1.3% to 13.4%) lower among those drinking water satisfying SDG 6.1 norms than among controls. Evidence concerning the relationship of drinking water meeting SDG 6.1 norms to length-for-age and weight-for-age was inconclusive, and there was no apparent relationship with stunting or wasting.ConclusionsIn contexts characterised by high pathogen transmission, water quality improvements have the potential to reduce the proportion of underweight children, but are unlikely to impact stunting or wasting. Further research is required to assess how these modelled benefits can best be achieved in real world settings.

Health Risk Assessment of Household Drinking Water in a District in the UAE

The quality of household drinking water in a community of 30 houses in a district in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates (UAE) was assessed over a period of one year (January to November 2015). Standard analytical techniques were used to screen for water quality parameters and contaminants of concern. Water quality was evaluated in the 30 households at four sampling points: kitchen faucet, bathroom faucet, household water tank, and main water pipe. The sampling points were chosen to help identify the source when an elevated level of a particular contaminant is observed. Water quality data was interpreted by utilizing two main techniques: spatial variation analysis and multivariate statistical techniques. Initial analysis showed that many households had As, Cd, and Pb concentrations that were higher than the maximum allowable level set by UAE drinking water standards. In addition, the water main samples had the highest concentration of the heavy metals compared to other sampling points. Health risk assessment results indicated that approximately 30%, 55%, and 15% of the houses studied had a high, moderate, and low risk from the prolonged exposure to heavy metals, respectively. The analysis can help with planning a spatially focused sampling plan to confirm the study findings and set an appropriate course of action.

Automated Time Series Measurement of Microbial Concentrations in Groundwater-Derived Water Supplies.

Fecal contamination by human and animal pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, and protozoa, is a potential human health hazard, especially with regards to drinking water. Pathogen occurrence in groundwater varies considerably in space and time, which can be difficult to characterize as sampling typically requires hundreds of liters of water to be passed through a filter. Here we describe the design and deployment of an automated sampler suited for hydrogeologically and chemically dynamic groundwater systems. Our design focused on a compact form to facilitate transport and quick deployment to municipal and domestic water supplies. We deployed a sampler to characterize water quality from a household well tapping a shallow fractured dolomite aquifer in northeast Wisconsin. The sampler was deployed from January to April 2017, and monitored temperature, nitrate, chloride, specific conductance, and fluorescent dissolved organic matter on a minute time step; water was directed to sequential microbial filters during three recharge periods that ranged from 5 to 20 days. Results from the automated sampler demonstrate the dynamic nature of the household water quality, especially with regard to microbial targets, which were shown to vary 1 to 2 orders of magnitude during a single sampling event. We believe assessments of pathogen occurrence and concentration, and related assessments of drinking well vulnerability, would be improved by the time‐integrated characterization provided by this sampler.

The Impact of Drinking Water Quality and Sanitation on Child Health: Evidence from Rural Ethiopia

This paper examines the association between stored drinking water quality and sanitation on diarrhoea incidence among under-five children in Ethiopia. Using primary household survey data and microbiological water quality testing for Escherichia coli, our results show that uncontaminated stored drinking water and safe child stool disposal are associated with decreased child diarrhoea incidences of 18 and 20 percentage points, respectively. In contrast, neighbourhood concentration of pit latrine shows an increased incidence of child diarrhoea of 16 percentage points. To protect rural children from the risk of contracting diarrhoea, improving household drinking water quality and changing people’s behaviour towards safe sanitation practices is needed.