Water Purification Tablets Research Articles

AN ASSESSMENT OF PHYSICOCHEMICAL AND MICROBIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER IN INSUKAMINI CATCHMENT WATER SOURCES AND THE SUITABILITY OF WATER FOR DOMESTIC USE

Insukamini catchment depends on hand dug wells, sand water abstraction, dam, and borehole water sources for their domestic uses. On hand dug wells and sand water abstraction, people rely on natural filtration of bacteria and consider the water as safe, however the location and management of some of these water sources raise suspicion of possible contamination. The aim of this study was to assess drinking water quality in terms of selected physico-chemical and microbiological parameters, and people's perceptions on aesthetic parameters. Water samples were collected from five water sources, namely sand water abstraction, dam, hand dug well, borehole and municipal water. Three samples were collected from each water source to make 63 samples. Temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, and dissolved oxygen measured using HI 9143 dissolved oxygen meter, YSI pH 100, HI 9143 dissolved oxygen meter and HI 8633 conductivity meter respectively. On laboratory experiments total suspended solids measured using filter disk, total dissolved solids using gravimetric method (SA, 2008), total and feacal coliform were measured using spread plate method. All water sources had total coliform levels above the WHO standards for drinking water of 1000mg/L. For E. coli, borehole and municipal water sources complied with the WHO standard with the means of zero cfu/ 100ml. Low pH mean of 5.001 was found in borehole water and the other water sources were within the accepted range of 6.5 to 8.5. Municipal and dam point (A) water sources had highest levels of TDS, borehole, and dam point (C) had TSS levels above maximums allowable of 1000mg/L and 150mg/L respectively. Temperature, DO and EC of all water sources were within the WHO standards. Overall, all water sources were not complying with WHO standard for drinking water. People described municipal water source as best for drinking purpose, dam, sand water abstraction and hand dug well water sources described as soft and good for laundry and bathing as compared to borehole which was described as hard. The results indicated that water from the sources under study were not suitable for drinking purposes without treatment. The water should rather be used for other domestic uses such as laundry and bathing. However, municipal water should be boiled or use water purification tablets (chlorine tablets) before drinking. An integrated approach is therefore required to minimize and avoid water pollution within the catchment.

Inadequate Hand Washing, Lack of Clean Drinking Water and Latrines as Major Determinants of Cholera Outbreak in Somali Region, Ethiopia in 2019.

IntroductionCholera remains a serious public health problem characterized by a large disease burden, frequent outbreaks, persistent endemicity, and high mortality, particularly in tropical and subtropical low-income countries including Ethiopia. The recent cholera outbreak in the Somali region began on 4 September to 1 November 2019. Cholera may spread rapidly through a population so that an early detection and reporting of the cases is mandatory. This study aimed to identify determinants of cholera infection among >5 years of age population in Somali region, Ethiopia.MethodsA community-based unmatched case-control study was conducted among 228 (76 cases and 152 controls, 1:2 ratio) systematically selected population. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire administered by an interviewer and a record review. Descriptive statistics and multivariable logistic regression analysis was used to identify the determinants of the risk factors of cholera infection with a 95% confidence interval and statistical significance was declared a tap-value < 0.05.ResultsA total of 228 participants (33.3% cases and 66.7% controls) were enrolled in this study. The majority of the cases were in the range of 20–49 years of age (69.7%). The odds of acquiring cholera infection increased significantly by drinking unsafe pipe water (AOR 4.3, 95% CI 1.65–11.2), not having a household level toilet/latrine (AOR 3.25, 95% CI 1.57–6.76), hand washing only sometimes after the toilet (AOR 3.04, 95% CI 1.58–5.86) and not using water purification methods (AOR 2.3, 95% CI 1.13–4.54).ConclusionMajor risk factors for cholera infection were related to drinking water and latrine hygiene. Improvement in awareness creation about cholera prevention and control methods, including water treatment, hygiene and sanitation were crucial in combating this cholera outbreak. Primary public health actions are ensuring clean drinking water, delivery of water purification tablets, soap and hand sanitizers and provision of health care and outbreak response. Long term goals in cholera affected areas include comprehensive water and sanitation strategies. Overall, the strategic role of a multi-sectoral approach in the design and implementation of public health interventions aimed at preventing and controlling cholera are essential to avert cholera outbreaks. Preparedness should be highlighted in cholera prone areas like Somali region especially after drought periods.

A drone fleet model for last-mile distribution in disaster relief operations

Humanitarian assistance operates under conditions characterized by the collapse of health facilities, the disruption of health systems and the breakdown of already on-going treatments in case of emergency. In addition to these circumstances, aid agencies in developing countries are often confronted with poor or non-existent infrastructure that is further disrupted in case of disasters, i.e., destroyed roads and debris-covered areas which hinder medical teams in reaching remote locations. As the supply via trucks and helicopters is not applicable in this situation, alternative means of transport have to be considered. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are receiving increased attention by humanitarian organizations as they can help overcoming last-mile distribution problems, i.e., inaccessibility to cut-off regions. This paper considers drone applications in last-mile distribution in humanitarian logistics and presents an optimization model for the delivery of multiple packages of light-weight relief items (e.g. vaccine, water purification tablets, etc.) via drones to a certain number of remote locations within a disaster prone area. The objective of the model is to minimize the total travelling distance (or time/cost) of the drone under payload and energy constraints while recharging stations are installed to allow the extension of the operating distance of the drone. The implementation of different priority policies is discussed. The model is solved as a mixed integer linear program and illustrated numerically with different scenarios.

Microfinance Institutions' Successful Delivery Of Micronutrient Powders: A Randomized Trial In Rural Haiti.

Globally, two-thirds of child deaths could be prevented by increased provision of health interventions such as vaccines, micronutrient supplements, and water purification tablets. We report the results from a randomized controlled trial in Haiti during 2012 that tested whether microfinance institutions-which reach 200million households worldwide-can effectively deliver health products. These institutions provide loans to underserved entrepreneurs, primarily poor women in rural areas. In the intervention group, micronutrient powders to improve the nutrition of young children were distributed at regularly occurring microfinance meetings by a trained borrower. In both the control and the intervention groups, nurses led seminars on nutrition and extended breastfeeding during microfinance meetings. At three-month follow-up, the mean difference in hemoglobin concentration between children in the intervention group and those in the control group was 0.28 grams per deciliter (g/dL)-with a subsample of younger children (under two years of age) showing greater relative improvement (0.46 g/dL)-and the odds ratio for children in the intervention group meeting the diagnostic criteria for anemia was 0.64. The results are similar to those of previous studies that evaluated micronutrient powder distribution through dedicated health institutions. Our findings suggest that microfinance institutions are a promising platform for the large-scale delivery of health products in low-income countries.

Evolution of the Child Health Day Strategy for the Integrated Delivery of Child Health and Nutrition Services

In efforts to meet the Millennium Development Goal for mortality among children under 5 years of age, countries require strategies for covering hard-to-reach and older children who are often missed by routine, fixed-site health services. To document the evolution of Child Health Days (CHDs), designed as regular events for the delivery of health and nutrition services to children under the age of five. We extracted information on service delivery strategies and codelivered interventions for the period 1999 to 2010from global monitoring databases for vitamin A and immunization. Our data illustrate a dramatic rise in CHDs over the decade: only two countries held CHDs in 1999; in 2010, 96 CHDs were conducted in 51 countries. Reliance on CHDs has been particularly marked in sub-Saharan Africa, where they are increasingly used to deliver five or more_services per event. Whereas early CHDs were largely defined by codelivery of vitamin A, immunizations, and deworming, they have since evolved into diverse packages including services such as water purification tablets and screening for severe malnutrition. The scale-up of CHDs is helping countries to achieve high and equitable coverage of essential health and nutrition services. Future research should consider whether the increasingly diverse services delivered via CHDs are guided by epidemiologic considerations, and whether the rising number of codelivered interventions is affecting coverage performance or service quality. Guidance is also needed to ensure that CHDs are implemented as part of systematic efforts to improve health systems.

Cholera in Haiti: The Equity Agenda and the Future of Tropical Medicine

Cholera in Haiti: The Equity Agenda and the Future of Tropical Medicine

(A253) Integrated Community-Based Interventions to Overcome a Deadly Cholera Outbreak in Zimbabwe

An unprecedented cholera outbreak affected Zimbabwe from August 2008 to July 2009 with 98,592 cases and 4,288 deaths, in 54 out of 62 districts. The main strategy used to overcome the outbreak was an integrated community-based interventions package. The present work is a case study to describe the strategy and lessons learned for future humanitarian crises and preparedness. The methodology was based on the review of epidemiological reports, assessment and surveys' reports, minutes of joint Health and Water Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) Clusters' meetings, and direct observation as Health Cluster Coordinator. Epidemiological data showed an increasing number of cases in rural areas with community deaths representing 66% of the 1,948 deaths from 61,304 cases on 31 January 2009. Risk factors identified in communities were: lack of awareness about the disease, cultural and religious behaviors, lack of potable water with weak sanitation, lack and inappropriate use of water purification tablets, and lack of soap and water containers for effective behavior change. There also was late arrival to cholera to the few treatment centers by rural populations. In addition to treatment centers, a package of interventions was implemented by multi-sectoral stakeholders. The package included: health and WASH education tools and practice sessions for healthy and hygienic behavior change and for an effective use of oral rehydration salt as first aid measure; community-based surveillance with an early warning system and response teams; and distribution of containers and water purification tablets with drilling of water points. Epidemiological data showed a significant decrease of cholera cases where the full package was implemented. This work showed that an integrated package of interventions jointly targeting risk factors can be effective on public health threats in rural communities. Community-based preparedness and response should then take into account an integrated joint intervention package to mitigate public health threats.

International Travel with Children

International Travel with Children

Do Iodine Water Purification Tablets Provide an Effective Barrier againstCryptosporidium parvum?

U.S. Army Iodine Water Purification Tablets were tested to determine their efficacy against Cryptosporidium parvum, a protozoan resistant to chemical disinfection. Purified oocysts in phosphate-buffered water were treated with varying concentrations of iodine or with iodine tablets as per U.S. Army protocol. Neonatal mouse pups were then each inoculated with 10,000 treated oocysts, and 1 week later scored as infected or uninfected. Using this methodology, iodine tablets were found to be inadequate against C. parvum because the Army doctrinal dose of 560 mg min/L, calculated as 16 mg of I2/L and 35 minutes of contact time, showed less than 1 log inactivation. A dose of 29 mg of I2/L at the same contact time was required to achieve a 2 log inactivation.

The impact on health and risk factors of the diarrhoea epidemics in the 1998 Bangladesh floods

The 1998 flood in Bangladesh ravaged approximately 60% of the land and affected over 30 million people. The aim of this study is to examine the impact of the flood on the health of the communities affected and to explore factors associated with episodes of diarrhoea. We conducted structured interviews with 517 people in two districts that had been affected in October 1998, when the flood water level was at its peak. Of the 517 respondents, 98.3% developed health problems or found that existing health problems were exacerbated. Many perceived that their general health condition was ‘much worse’ (16.9%) or ‘worse’ (64.3%). The most prevalent condition was fever (63.6%), followed by respiratory problems (46.8%), diarrhoea (44.3%), and skin problems (41.0%). Only 1.0% and 6.7% of the respondents treated water before drinking, by boiling and chlorination, respectively, although water collected from tube-wells (93.2%) and rivers (6.0%) was perceived by 75.0% of the respondents to be contaminated. Factors associated with developing or worsening diarrhoea were as follows; the number of family members, poor economic status, a lack of distribution of water purification tablets, the type of water storage vessels, not putting a lid on the vessel, no use of latrines, perceived change of drinking water, food scarcity, and worries about the future. In logistic regression analysis, men, poor economic status, lack of distribution of water purification tablets, and the type of water storage vessels had a significant association with diarrhoea. The 1998 Bangladesh flood had a substantial impact on the health of communities. Diarrhoea was associated with socioeconomic status, water handling and household sanitation. There ought to be more emphasis on health education in the pre-disaster period in order to empower communities against floods. Public Health (2002) 116, 68–74

The impact on health and risk factors of the diarrhoea epidemics in the 1998 Bangladesh floods

The 1998 flood in Bangladesh ravaged approximately 60% of the land and affected over 30 million people. The aim of this study is to examine the impact of the flood on the health of the communities affected and to explore factors associated with episodes of diarrhoea. We conducted structured interviews with 517 people in two districts that had been affected in October 1998, when the flood water level was at its peak. Of the 517 respondents, 98.3% developed health problems or found that existing health problems were exacerbated. Many perceived that their general health condition was ‘much worse’ (16.9%) or ‘worse’ (64.3%). The most prevalent condition was fever (63.6%), followed by respiratory problems (46.8%), diarrhoea (44.3%), and skin problems (41.0%). Only 1.0% and 6.7% of the respondents treated water before drinking, by boiling and chlorination, respectively, although water collected from tube-wells (93.2%) and rivers (6.0%) was perceived by 75.0% of the respondents to be contaminated. Factors associated with developing or worsening diarrhoea were as follows; the number of family members, poor economic status, a lack of distribution of water purification tablets, the type of water storage vessels, not putting a lid on the vessel, no use of latrines, perceived change of drinking water, food scarcity, and worries about the future. In logistic regression analysis, men, poor economic status, lack of distribution of water purification tablets, and the type of water storage vessels had a significant association with diarrhoea. The 1998 Bangladesh flood had a substantial impact on the health of communities. Diarrhoea was associated with socioeconomic status, water handling and household sanitation. There ought to be more emphasis on health education in the pre-disaster period in order to empower communities against floods. Public Health (2002) 116, 68–74

Efficacy of iodine water purification tablets against Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts.

The ability to control water-borne diseases is critical for soldiers, hikers, and others who may need to drink directly from an outdoor source. Water-borne protozoan parasites that are specifically of concern are Giardia and Cryptosporidium because of their resistance to halogen disinfection. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of iodine tablets against Giardia and Cryptosporidium under general- and worst-case water conditions that might be found in the field. Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts were exposed to iodine according to manufacturer's instructions (two tablets/L = 13-18 mg/L for 20 minutes). This dose inactivated 3-log10 of Giardia in general-case water and pH 9. In worst-case water, however, only about 35% of cysts were inactivated at pH 5. Fifty minutes were required to achieve a 3-log10 reduction at pH 5. Cryptosporidium oocysts were more difficult to inactivate. Only 10% were inactivated after a 20-minute exposure to iodine according to manufacturer's instructions; even after 240 minutes of exposure to iodine only 66-81% oocysts were inactivated. These data strongly suggest that iodine disinfection is not effective in inactivating Cryptosporidium oocysts in water. Because this organism is common in all surface waters, it is recommended that another method of treatment be used before ingestion.

Thyroid adaptation to chronic tetraglycine hydroperiodide water purification tablet use.

Tetraglycine hydroperiodide tablets purify water by liberating 8 mg free iodine/tablet. The effects of ingesting four tablets daily for 3 months on thyroid size, function, and radioactive iodine uptake were studied prospectively in eight healthy volunteers. Serum inorganic iodide increased from 2.7 to approximately 100 micrograms/dL. Urinary iodide excretion rose 150-fold from a pretreatment mean of 0.276 to 40 mg/day. Radioactive iodine uptake was less than 2% after 7 days and remained below 2% in all subjects at 90 days. Mean serum T4 and T3 declined after 7 days. T4 remained below baseline, whereas T3 had recovered by the end of the treatment period. Serum TSH and the TSH response to TRH rose significantly after 7 days and remained elevated at 3 months. The average thyroid volume, determined by ultrasound, increased by 37%. Neither hyperthyroidism nor hypothyroidism was observed. The mean thyroid volume in seven subjects available for repeat determinations an average of 7.1 months after the study was not different from the baseline value. In normal subjects, a reversible TSH-dependent thyroid enlargement occurs in response to the iodine load from daily use of tetraglycine hydroperiodide water purification tablets.

Biocidal Efficacy of a Flocculating Emergency Water Purification Tablet

Chlor-Floc (CF) emergency water purification tablets were tested for bactericidal, virucidal, and cysticidal efficacy in water at temperatures ranging from 5 to 25 degrees C. The minimal required log reduction was achieved for bacteria, Giardia muris, and rotavirus, but CF did not achieve the required log reduction of poliovirus at any of the temperatures or times investigated. The biocidal properties of the CF tablet were equivalent to if not greater than those of the Globaline iodine tablet, and the CF tablet was a more rapid cysticide under several potential use conditions. Therefore, it is a suitable substitute for iodine tablets for emergency purification of drinking water. Clarification of turbid waters was effective, but filtration through a cloth is necessary to prevent flocculated sediment from entering the canteen. The CF tablets met military requirements for emergency water purification and are safe and acceptable for use by the military.

An Iodine Load from Water-Purification Tablets Alters Thyroid Function in Humans

Tablets containing tetraglycine hydroperiodide are used to purify small quantities of water for drinking. Because short-term administration of stable iodide can alter thyroid function in normal adults, we evaluated the effects of these tablets on thyroid function during a military field training exercise. Fourteen normal volunteers participated in the study. After an adjustment period of 2 weeks to the field environment, half of the subjects received four dissolved water-purification tablets (32 mg free iodine) daily for 7 consecutive days while the other half served as controls. At the end of the study the treatment group showed reductions in the mean serum levels of thyroxine (14%) and total triiodothyronine (15%) and significant increments in basal thyrotropin (TSH) (122%) and the TSH response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone (49%) compared to baseline values. The basal TSH level rose above the normal range in two subjects. No significant changes in any parameter of thyroid function were observed in the control subjects. One week of daily exposure to the iodine load from four tetraglycine hydroperiodide water-purification tablets causes mild impairment of thyroid function in humans.

Regulating drinking water quality

PART 1: UPDATE ON REGULATING LEAD IN DRINKING WATER. Regulating Lead in Drinking Water: A Status Report (June 1990) (Michael Cox, Lonnie Finkel, and Jeff Cohen). The Lead Ban: Implementation and Enforcement (Peter Lassovszky and Jeff Cohen). New York City's Corrosion Evaluation Plan (Charlotte Dery). Can Safe Lead Levels in Drinking Water be Deduced from Current Scientific Evidence? (Phyllis Mullenix). The Lead Contamination Control Act (Peter Lassovszky and Jeff Cohen). Iowa's Approach to Lead in School Drinking Water (Kenneth Choquette and Rita Gergely). A Comprehensive Risk Assessment of Massachusetts' Children to Lead in School Drinking Water (Ann Marie Burke, Ralph Timperi, Ngozi Oleru, and Jeff Cohen). PART 2: RADON IN DRINKING WATER. Regulation of Radon in Drinking Water (Gregory Helms). Regional Perspective on Radon in Drinking Water (Charles Larson and Stan Rydell). A Survey of Naturally Occurring Radionuclides in Groundwater in Selected Bedrock Aquifers in Connecticut and Implications for Public Health Policy (Carolyn DuPuy, Denis Healy, Margaret Thomas, David Brown, Alan Siniscalchi, and Zygmunt Dembek). Radon in Drinking Water: Keeping Risks in Perspective (Richard Guimond). Managing Radon Risks in Drinking Water: A Question of Yardstick (William Bell). PART 3: REGULATING FOR MICROBES AND DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS. Key Issues for Regulating Disinfection By-Products (Stephen Clark). Critical Issues in Regulating Microbes and Disinfection By-Products (Richard Moser). Disinfection Requirements to Control for Microbial Contamination (Stig Regli). Revised Total Coliform Rule (Paul Berger). Health Effects of Microbes Isolated from Drinking Water (Steven Edberg). Potential Links Between the Eutrophication of Surface Water Supplies and Formation of Carcinogens in Drinking Water (Nancy Palmstrom, Robert Carlson, and G. Dennis Cooke). Evaluation of the Military Effectiveness of CHLOR-FLOC Water Purification Tablets (Stephen Schaub, Helen Hargett, and Kurt Kamrud). PART 4: EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT AND DRINKING WATER CONTAMINATION. Estimating Exposure to Vinyl Chloride Due to Inhalation During Showering (Pamela Boardman, Jayne Michaud, and Bruce Fishman). PART 5: RISK ESTIMATION AND STANDARD SETTING. Extrapolation from Animal Data Using Median Effect Principal (James Stewart). Developing a Standard for Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether in Drinking Water (Chuck Gilbert and Edward Calabrese). Toxic Chemical Regulation in Massachusetts Drinking Waters: Guideline Derivation Methods and Hazard Evaluation Procedures (Michael Hutcheson and Karen Martin). The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) (Jacqueline Patterson, Rita Schoney, and Patricia Daunt). Woburn Environment and Birth Study (Marilyn DiSirio). Perception of Toxicologic Risk at the Community Level: Contaminated Ground Water Used as Drinking Water (Jenifer S. Heath). PART 6: CONSUMER PROTECTION FROM DRINKING WATER POINT OF USE SYSTEMS. Residential Water Treatment Systems: An Iowa Consumer Protection Law (Kenneth Choquette and Rita Gergely). LIST OF AUTHORS. INDEX.