Water Productivity Research Articles

Onion growth, yield and water productivity as influenced by irrigation levels under drip irrigation and plastic mulch

In the current agricultural circumstances, when farmers are struggling to find enough water for irrigation and want to maximize their production by enhancing water productivity, drip irrigation is one of the most important methods. By reducing water and nutrient losses, the application of plastic mulch combined with drip watering can maximize onion yield. A field study was carried out in the Precision Farming Development Center's experimental field at the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India, from November to March of two consecutive seasons (2022–23 and 2023–24) to evaluate the optimum water needed to achieve the maximum yield under subsurface drip irrigation. The objective of the study was to determine the optimum crop water requirement for onion under plastic mulch and subsurface drip irrigation. The growth, yield, quality and water productivity response of onion under different level of irrigation using subsurface drip and plastic mulch also studied. The result showed that biometric parameters for onion under 100% irrigation water requirement along with plastic mulch (T2) was greater among all the treatments for both years with plant height (71 cm), number of leaves (13.3), bulb diameter (6.6 cm), bulb weight (126 g) and onion marketable yield (36.7 t/ha). These results were followed by treatment with 80% of water requirement using drip along with mulch. However, the biometric, yield and quality parameters of treatment 80% of water requirement using drip along with mulch were not statistically significant with the treatment 100% of water requirement using drip along with mulch. Therefore, study concluded that the treatment with 80% of water requirement using drip along with mulch might be recommended to achieve statistically on par onion yield in comparison to the yield of treatment T2 using optimum crop water requirement under subsurface drip irrigation and plastic mulch.

Modification of blend reverse osmosis membranes using ZrO2 for desalination process purposes

Desalination of water is a crucial step in the process of obtaining potable water. One of the main challenges for the researchers is its efficient application and affordable preparation. It was planned to prepare the flat sheet membranes using cellulose acetate as a base polymer, and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) as an additive with dosing of (0.1, 0.3, 0.5, and 0.7 wt%) from zirconium oxide (ZrO2) nanoparticle. SEM, TEM, and XRD analyses were used to characterize the generated ZrO2 nanoparticle in order to confirm its nano-size and crystal structure. The surface morphologies and existence of the dense layer, which is the typical property of the RO membrane capable of salt separation, were identified on the manufactured RO membranes by SEM. Membranes prepared by embedding 0.5 wt%ZrO2 with PVA/CA proved efficient as RO membranes using 2000 ppm NaCl and exhibited high salt rejection of 97% and water permeability of 12.5 LMH. Also, there is a decrease in the NaCl removal tendency was observed with the excessive dosages of ZrO2 with 0.7 wt%, which was due to the concentration polarization, which blocks the pores on the surfaces of the membranes. The antifouling behavior of the prepared membranes was tested using bovine serum albumin (BSA), the results indicate the low irreversible resistance, total fouling resistance, and high flux recovery ratio compared to the neat membrane. The prepared membranes have a stable salt rejection and water productivity even after demonstrating with chlorine (25–100 mg l−1 of NaOCl for 120 min).

Interactive Effect of Irrigation and Sowing Methods on Yield, Quality, and Water Productivity of Quinoa under Ridge Sowing Technique

Interactive Effect of Irrigation and Sowing Methods on Yield, Quality, and Water Productivity of Quinoa under Ridge Sowing Technique

MODELLING AND FORECASTING WATER PRODUCTIVITY IN MOROCCO BY MEANS OF STOCHASTIC VASICEK MODEL

We study a stochastic homogeneous Vasicek diffusion process, and determine its characteristics, such as the analytical expression and the trend functions. By using the maximum likelihood approach based on discrete sampling, we estimate parameters and trend functions. To evaluate the capability of this process, we use simulated sample paths of the model and examine the goodness of fit. Finally, we apply the process to fit and predict the total water productivity in Morocco.

Interannual Variation of Stomatal Traits Impacts the Environmental Responses of Apple Trees.

Stomata are fundamental to plant-water relations and represent promising targets to enhance crop water-use efficiency and climate resilience. Here, we investigated stomatal density (SD) variation in 269 apple accessions across 3 years (2019-2021), which demonstrated significant differences between accessions but consistency over time. We selected 2 subsets of 20 accessions, each with contrasting SD: high stomatal density (HSD; 370-500 mm-2) and low stomatal density (LSD; 192-316 mm-2). SD groups were compared in stomatal function, leaf physiology and crop productivity across two seasons (2021-2022). LSD had lower stomatal conductance (gs) and higher intrinsic water-use efficiency in both years (p < 0.05). Hotter and drier conditions in 2022 reduced gs similarly in both groups (-22% HSD, -21% LSD), but also created a difference in net carbon assimilation (Anet) that was not present in 2021 (HSD + 1.7 μmol CO2 m-2 s-1, p < 0.05). LSD constraints on Anet were reflected in carbon isotope discrimination (δ13C, p < 0.001) and annual decline in fruit yield (-35%, p < 0.001). Our results demonstrate the suitability of SD as a trait to improve WUE, but also identifies a trade-off between water savings and productivity, which requires consideration for breeding.

Effect of stage‐wise deficit irrigation on crop water productivity of different varieties of teff (Eragrostis tef)

AbstractThe increasing demand for water for various purposes is causing the availability of water for irrigation to decrease daily. Consequently, it is necessary to implement deficit irrigation. Research on the different teff crop varieties and the level of deficit irrigation with crop growth stages at semi‐arid agroecological zones remains inadequate. Therefore, the objective of this research was to evaluate the effect of stage‐wise deficit irrigation and crop variety on crop water productivity for the teff crop. Two varieties of teff and three irrigation levels were selected and applied for each growth stage. Crop water productivity was determined by using crop water consumed with their yield production and analyzed using Statistix 10.0 software. The results showed that crop varieties had a significant effect on crop water productivity. The maximum crop water use efficiency (0.92 kg m−3) and field water use efficiency (1.387 kg m−3) were obtained for a 30% deficit at the ripening growth stage for the Tseday teff variety. Contrarily, the minimum CWUE and FWUE of 0.617 kg m−3 and 0.959 kg m−3 were obtained to 30% deficit irrigation at the yield formation growth stage of the Quncho teff variety. Therefore, deficit irrigation during the yield formation growth stage was not recommended, but it was possible to apply deficit irrigation during the ripening growth stage to improve crop water productivity in areas of water scarcity.

Physiological Adaptations of Vegetables to Climate Stress

Vegetables, being rich in vitamins, carbohydrates, minerals, proteins and antioxidants are essential for overcoming micronutrient deficiencies, offering higher incomes and more employment opportunities per hectare to smallholder farmers compared to staple crops. Major challenges faced by vegetable growers are increased terminal heat stress, rainfall variability leading to flooding, drought, irrigation water availability, salinity, incidence of pests and diseases, extreme weather events. These gets further worsened in the future due to climate change. Vegetables exhibit various physiological adaptations to cope with changing environmental conditions such as enhanced photosynthetic efficiency, improved water-use efficiency, and altered phenological development. Higher temperatures accelerate the life cycle of vegetables cause increased respiration, leading to earlier maturation and potentially lower yields. Increased frequency of heat waves can cause heat stress, affecting growth and development. Moreover elevated temperatures increase the incidence of pests and diseases, leading to higher crop losses. Changes in precipitation patterns alter water availability, impacting growth and productivity. Nevertheless drought conditions cause stomatal closure limiting water loss besides reducing CO2 uptake. Excessive rainfall can lead to waterlogging, disrupting root function and nutrient uptake. Variability in climate conditions lead to inconsistent yields, making it challenging for farmers and necessitating adaptive strategies to ensure crop resilience and productivity. Genetic improvement through breeding for heat and drought tolerance helps to develop resilient vegetables. Additionally, agronomic practices like mulching, organic farming, and resource conservation technologies help mitigate the adverse effects of climate change. Understanding these physiological responses could streamline sustainable vegetable production in the face of a changing climate.

Economic irrigation water productivity of wheat and potato: An earth observation perspective on policy implications in the Litani Basin, Lebanon

Efficient water management is critical in addressing the challenges posed by water scarcity and resource sustainability in agriculture. However, the utilization of remote sensing technology to monitor and enhance water productivity in data-scarce environments remains an open question. This study underscores the importance of integrating earth observation systems into agricultural water management policies, elucidating their potential to shape crucial policy decisions and investment strategies, particularly in regions facing data limitations. To address this issue, we provide a comprehensive framework that blends remote sensing data with field-based economic information, to develop the concept of economic productivity of irrigation water. Leveraging FAO’s Water Productivity Open-access portal (WaPOR) data, we spatially assess yields, water use, crop water productivity, economic water productivity, and economic irrigation water productivity (EIWP) for wheat and potatoes in the Upper Litani Basin of Lebanon's Bekaa Valley. Early season potatoes outperform irrigated wheat significantly, providing up to ten times higher returns on irrigation water ($6/m3 vs. $0.6/m3). Spatial analysis shows that southern areas have 30 % lower potato EIWP than northern areas of the valley but 55 % higher wheat EIWP, mainly due to higher rainfall. Our findings reveal that merely considering crop water productivity is insufficient when deciding what to plant, as it fails to account for profitability. While transitioning to crops or practices with greater EIWP can enhance economic productivity on the short-term, it may simultaneously lead to increased water consumption. As a result, the shift towards highly water-productive systems may require measures such as controlling irrigated areas or implementing restrictions on water withdrawals to maintain stable water consumption levels. This study offers valuable insights for water resource management, agricultural policy, and sustainable water utilization, especially in semi-arid regions like the Litani Basin, providing a foundation for informed decision-making in these resource-constrained environments.

Mechanistic investigation on degradation of tetrabromobisphenol S by OH, O3 and SO4•- in wastewater and atmosphere

Human cytotoxicity and neurotoxicity are two characteristics of the new brominated flame retardant (NBFR) tetrabromobisphenol S (TBBPS). TBBPS can be discovered in both water and the atmosphere. The degradation of TBBPS by •OH and O3 both in the atmosphere and water was investigated. For the first time, we examine the mechanism of TBBPS and O2•- transformation using the density functional theory (DFT) method. We also examine the routes of TBBPS with SO4•-, and 1O2. The TBBPS-OH intermediates will react with O2 and HO2• to produce products in water, and the •OH-addition products of TBBPS will react with O2 and NO in the atmosphere. In comparison to the water phase, the gas phase TBBPS pathways with •OH and O3 are more advantageous. At 298K, the TBBPS reaction rate constant with O2•- is 5.39 × 10-7M-1 s-1. The TBBPS O2•--addition routes are superior to the TBBPS O2•--SET pathways. SO4•- and •OH predominate in the breakdown of TBBPS, where O2•-, 1O2 and O3 playing a minor role. Significant quantities of very hazardous TBBPS breakdown products are produced by SO4•--based AOPs. TBBPS has an environmental half-life of 0.0119s within the [•OH] of 10-9molL-1 in AOPs at 298K, despite being environmentally persistent in natural waters. The majority of TBBPS transformation products have far lower levels of toxicity. This work disproved the theory that O2•--based AOPs degrade TBBPS and supported the degradation of TBBPS by AOPs based on •OH.

Effect of Irrigation Management and Nitrogen Fertilizer on Water Productivity, Yield Components and Nitrate Pollution Under Maize Crop

Effect of Irrigation Management and Nitrogen Fertilizer on Water Productivity, Yield Components and Nitrate Pollution Under Maize Crop

High Efficiency Irrigation System and Socio-Economic Development for the Farmers of Pakistan

This study examine the factors in the adoption of high-efficiency irrigation system (HEIS) for socio-economic development in southern Punjab, Pakistan. Multi-stage sampling is used to select the sample of 400 farmers (200 HEIS adopters and 200 non-adopters) from major districts of south Punjab. The results demonstrated that determinants including average landholding, age, education and awareness of HEIS all had a significant impact on the adoption of HEIS. The adoption rate of HEIS was also found to be impacted by energy crises, operational and maintenance issues, high installation prices and a lack of experienced employees. A higher proportion of participants strongly believed that HEIS might increase agricultural productivity while simultaneously saving water for future use. Additionally, respondents believed that shifting HEIS to high-value crops improves social status, particularly in rural areas. BCR values for wheat, guava and citrus using SI and DI were found to be larger than 1. The SI system NPV values for the wheat crop ranged from Rs. 248034 to Rs. 463191. Similarly, the results are consistent for DI for guava and citrus orchards (BCR &gt; 1 and NPV positive values demonstrate that HEIS project is more economically feasible and viable than TI). Moreover, the benefit-cost ratio demonstrated that, when compared to conventional irrigated growers, the yield and net benefit due to HEIS of a variety of crops, including citrus, wheat, and guava, improved significantly to 48.48%, 70%, 44.83%, 102%, 178% and 107%, respectively. Water productivity of HEIS-irrigated wheat, guava and citrus were calculated as 1.2, 2.6 and 2.5 kg/m3, respectively and increased highly significantly than TI. The findings suggested that government initiatives should focus to enhance adoption rate of HEIS. This could be accomplished by providing modest subsidized HEIS and imparting awareness to farmers about the socioeconomic benefits of HEIS.. KEYWORDS :Agriculture, Cost-benefit, HEIS, Socio-economic development, Sustainable, Water productivity, NPV.

A new oligothiophene-based turn-on fluorescent probe for rapid, visual and ultrasensitive monitoring of hypochlorite in real-life samples

Excessive level of hypochlorite (ClO−) can cause the oxidation of biomolecules including DNA, proteins and RNA, even damage vital organ. Thus, developing effective detecting techniques is of great need to monitor ClO− levels. Herein, a new turn-on fluorescent probe 3TD based on oligothiophene was constructed to effectively detect ClO− in real-life samples. Probe 3TD showed attractive sensing properties toward ClO− with high specificity, strong anti-interference, ultrasensitivity (detection limit: 9.8 nM), ultrarapid response (40 s), and wide applicable pH range (4–10). Interestingly, 3TD was applied for visual and daily on-site monitoring of ClO− in lettuce, kumquat, rice, onion and sprouted potato, and the 3TD-based test strips were also used for rapid, sensitive, visual on-site monitoring of ClO−, providing a reliable and convenient approach for visual on-site analysis. Importantly, 3TD was capable of sensitive monitoring of ClO− levels in water, disinfectants, bio-fluids, vegetables, fruits, and dairy products with high precision, offering an effective means for ultrasensitive monitoring of ClO− in real-life samples.

Furrow irrigation design and evaluation for enhancing indices of water usage performance and productivity of canola crop in North Nile Delta soils

Furrow irrigation design and evaluation for enhancing indices of water usage performance and productivity of canola crop in North Nile Delta soils

Effects of Alternate Wetting and Drying Irrigation on Methane and Nitrous Oxide Emissions From Rice Fields: A Meta-Analysis.

Reducing water input and promoting water productivity in rice field under alternate wetting and drying irrigation (AWD), instead of continuous flooding (CF), are vital due to increasing irrigation water scarcity. However, it is also important to understand how methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions and global warming potential ( of CH4 and N2O) respond to AWD under the influence of various factors. Here, we conducted a meta-analysis to investigate the impact of AWD on CH4 and N2O emissions and , and its modification by climate conditions, soil properties, and management practices. Overall, compared to CF, AWD significantly reduced CH4 emissions by 51.6% and by 46.9%, while increased N2O emissions by 44.0%. The effect of AWD on CH4 emissions was significantly modified by soil drying level, the number of drying events, mean annual precipitation (MAP), soil organic carbon content (SOC), growth cycle, and nitrogen fertilizer (N) application. Regarding N2O emissions, mean annual temperature (MAT), elevation, soil texture, and soil pH had significant impacts on the AWD effect. Consequently, the under AWD was altered by soil drying level, soil pH, and growth cycle. Additionally, we found that MAP or MAT can be used to accurately assess the changes of global or national CH4 and N2O emissions under mild AWD. Moreover, increasing SOC, but not N application, is a potential strategy to further reduce CH4 emissions under (mild) AWD, since no difference was found between application of 60-120 and > 120 kg N ha-1. Furthermore, the soil pH can serve as an indicator to assess the reduction of under (mild) AWD as indicated by a significant linear correlation between them. These findings can provide valuable data support for accurate evaluation of non-CO2 greenhouse gas emissions reduction in rice fields under large-scale promotion of AWD in the future.

Assessment of Water Poverty Index (WPI) Under Changing Land Use/Land Cover in a Riverine Ecosystem of Central India

Watershed Development is a very common phenomenon in the river basins in India due to its dynamic and continuously changing nature, which are interconnected via. Land use/land cover (LULC) change and water poverty scenario over time. In the present study, the samples were chosen from seven sampled villages for the Water Poverty Index (WPI) in the upper Tons River Basin. Among them, Ghunwara and Maihar Village exhibit the highest and lowest WPI, i.e., 98.1 and 62.91 out of 100, respectively. This indicates that villages with a high WPI face challenges in their water requirements, regardless of the seasonal river serving the basin area. Conversely, villages with a low WPI can satisfy their water needs solely from the basin. The present analysis of the Upper Tons River Basin suggests that Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) will undergo influences or adjustments at various stages, ultimately affecting agricultural land in the impact region. It also becomes evident that areas with limited land use and land cover (LULC) extensions exhibit lower Water Productivity Index (WPI), primarily due to their reliance on agricultural land. It is observed that alterations, reductions, or modifications in LULC lead to changes in multiple aspects of agricultural land, resulting in noticeable variations in various metrics. The present paper not only evaluates the land use in the Upper Tons River Basin spanning from 2001 to 2021 but also highlights the changing patterns that impact water resources and their utilization capacity. Furthermore, the study estimates the influence of reducing specific features on the distribution of WPI and other LULC parameters. The Upper Tons River Basin faces challenges such as unfavorable rainfall patterns and inadequate planning for irrigation at the fundamental and local levels. Additionally, its geographical location in a rainfed area negatively affects the WPI.

Film mulching can alleviate soil quality decrease and produce high maize yield under different irrigation strategies

Plastic film mulching (PM) combined with irrigation is widely adopted to improve crop yields, water and nitrogen efficiency, especially in arid farming areas. Despite its benefits, the effects of this method on soil quality and its subsequent impact on crop productivity and resource efficiency have not been thoroughly investigated. In this study, we formulated a soil quality indicator (SQI) from five years of field experiments in the Hetao Irrigation District (HID) of Northwestern China. The treatments included border irrigation as the control treatment (CK), CK combined with PM (BI_PM), and three water level drip irrigation treatments combined with PM. Three threshold values of soil matric potential for drip irrigation were −10 kPa (HDI_PM), −30 kPa (MDI_PM), and −50 kPa (LDI_PM). We then examined the SQI changes based on measured multiple soil properties and assessed their implications for maize yield, irrigation water productivity (IWP), and partial factor productivity of nitrogen (PFPN). We found: (1) from 2016 to 2020, HDI_PM achieved the highest average yield (15.77 t ha–1), IWP (3.73 kg m–3), and PFPN (63.18 kg kg–1), showing increases of 54.77 %, 84.90 %, and 96.93 % over the control treatment, respectively; (2) no significant variations in the SQI were observed for HDI_PM in 2020 in the topsoil (0–30 cm) and subsoil (30–60 cm) compared to the initial condition. However, CK, BI_PM, MDI_PM, and LDI_PM showed reductions in SQI in both soil layers, primarily due to decreased soil organic carbon (SOC) and structural stability, along with increased sand content and soil salinity; (3) according to the linear mixed-effects model, a low SQI (< 0.43), elevated temperatures, and drought indices negatively impact yield. Hence, we advocate for HDI_PM to maximize yield and PFPN. To enhance soil quality, identifying agronomic practices that increase SOC and reduce soil salinity in the HID is crucial.

A Machine Learning Approach to Produce a Continuous Solar‐Induced Chlorophyll Fluorescence Over the Arctic Ocean

AbstractPhytoplankton primary production is a crucial component of Arctic Ocean (AO) biogeochemistry, playing a pivotal role in carbon cycling by supporting higher trophic levels and removing atmospheric carbon dioxide. The advent of satellite observations measuring chlorophyll a concentration (Chl_a) has provided unprecedented insights into the distribution of AO phytoplankton, enhancing our ability to assess oceanic net primary production (NPP). However, the optical properties of AO waters differ significantly from those of the lower‐latitude waters, complicating remotely sensed Chl_a retrievals. To mitigate these deficiencies, solar‐induced chlorophyll fluorescence (SIF) has emerged as a valuable tool for gaining physiological insights into the direct photosynthetic processes of the AO. However, the temporal coverage of satellite SIF data makes long‐term analysis of Chl_a photosynthetic activity challenging. In this study, we leverage satellite‐based SIF measurements from 2018 to 2021 to assess their correlation with a set of predictive factors influencing phytoplankton photosynthesis. Generally, observed SIF over the AO showed a higher correlation with normalized fluorescence line height (NFLH) compared to Chl_a. We extended the temporal coverage of the original SIF data to encompass the period from 2004 to 2020. The extended record revealed noticeable differences between SIF, and satellite‐based Chl_a, and NFLH observations. Our novel data set offers a pathway forward to monitor the physiological interactions of phytoplankton with climate changes, promising to significantly improve our understanding of Arctic waters productivity. The application of this data is expected to provide new insights into how phytoplankton respond to environmental shifts, contributing to a more nuanced understanding of their role in high‐latitude marine ecosystems.

Plant Biosensors Analysis for Monitoring Nectarine Water Status

The real-time monitoring of plant water status is an important issue for digital irrigation to increase water productivity. This work focused on a comparison of three biosensors that continuously evaluate plant water status: trunk microtensiometers (MTs), trunk time-domain reflectometry (TDR), and LVDT sensors. During the summer and autumn seasons (DOY 150–300), nectarine trees were subjected to four different consecutive irrigation periods based on the soil Management Allowed Deficit (MAD) concept, namely: MAD10 (light deficit); MAD50 (moderate deficit); MAD100 (severe deficit), and MAD0 (full irrigation). Measurements of stem water potential (Ψstem) and leaf gas exchange were recorded on representative days. A continuous measurement of the plant water status of Ψtrunk, MDS, and Ktrunk revealed the water deficits imposed on the soil. The highest water deficit observed at the end of the MAD100 period (Ψstem = −2.04 MPa and Ɵv = 17%) resulted in a minimum value of Ψtrunk (−1.81 Mpa). The maximum value of MDS (408 µm) was observed earlier than that of Ψtrunk, motivated by the low sensitivity of MDS at Ψtrunk &lt; −1.2 Mpa and Ψstem &lt; −1.5 Mpa due to a decrease in the tissue elasticity of the trunk when severe water deficit conditions are reached. Both Ψtrunk and Ψstem were more dependent on soil water content, while MDS was more responsive to environmental changes. Ktrunk was the weakest indicator for determining plant water status, although when expressed as a daily fraction of depletion (KtrunkFD), it improved, evidencing a process of hysteresis. Ψtrunk showed the highest sensitivity, suggesting the potential use of MTs as a valuable biosensor for monitoring nectarine water status in digital agrosystems.

Metallic Bipolar Plates for Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell (PEFC) Used in Electric Vehicles using the WSM Method

Metallic Bipolar Plates for Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell (PEFC) used in electric vehicles. Electric vehicles use electrolytic polymeric fuel cells (PEFCs) built of bipolar sheet metal. Along with the MEA, One of the most essential components of a PEFC cell is the bipolar plate. since they support the MEA, provide rigidi-ty to the layer, and even allow for gas diffusion. Electrical conductivity is provided by the entire electrode surface. The control of heat and the ejection of product water are two additional benefits of a well-prepared bipolar plate [103-105]. In the PEFC stack, bipolar plates are placed between the MEAs so that each of them offers a link to one end of a MEA and, on the other side, to the cath of an adjacent MEA. Bi-polar panels should be small and thin to reduce For PEMFCs, a variety of metal bipolar plates are now being investigated to suit the demands of lowering costs, increasing stacking size, lowering weight, and raising energy density. The quality of interest strategy was compared to the best answer (TOPSIS) the multi-attribute decision-making approach (MADM) in this work, the optimal substance for a metallic bi-polar plate is selected using (MADM). For electrolyte polymer fuel cells (PEFCs), which can have numer-ous competing objectives? Material designers can choose the best material based on preset criteria with the use of a suggested algorithm tool. The theoretical framework is followed by a case study on the mate-rial selection for a PEFC bipolar plate. A list of all the products that meet the requirements for selection, including production costs, by dividing each of our objectives by a user-supplied weight, we divide our audience into a single goal via the weighted sum approach. One of the most popular methods is this one. When considering overall weights, one concern is determining how much weight to give each goal. The primary goal governs are added with varying weights in the weighed total approach, and the sum is then optimized. The goal that function is optimized while another is constrained to a variable's value in the electrically operated constraint approach you can generate an integrated analysis by combining several inputs and weights using the Total Weight function. In that several raster inputs representing various fac-tors can be easily mixed, mixing weights or relative importance, it is comparable to the Weighted Overlay function. 316 austenitic stainless steel,310 austenitic stainless steel,317l austenitic stainless steel,316l aus-tenitic stainless steel, aluminum (gold plated), aisi 446 ferritic stainless steel, aisi 436 ferritic stainless steel, aisi 444 ferritic stainless stee, aisi 434 ferritic stainless stee,304 austenitic stainless steel, titanium (coated with nitride), a560 (50cr–ni). the density of an object, the tensile strength, the expansions coeffi-cients, conductivity of heat, thermal diffusivity, and fracture toughness are some of the other characteris-tics of bipolar plates that should be considered. From the result it is seen that titanium (coated with ni-tride) is got the first rank whereas is the 310 austenitic stainless steel having the lowest rank. The first ranking titanium (coated with nitride) is obtained with the lowest quality of 310 austenitic stainless steel.

Effect of Deficit Irrigation and Mulch Application on Onion (&amp;lt;i&amp;gt;Allium cepa L&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;.) Bulb Yield and Water Productivity Under Drip Irrigation at Ambo, West Shoa, Ethiopia

Drip irrigation, combined with mulch and deficit water application, can significantly improve the water efficiency of irrigated agriculture. Study at Ambo Agricultural Research Center during the 2021/22 and 2022/23 irrigation seasons aimed to determine the most suitable deficit levels and mulch for drip-irrigated onion. The experiment used a randomized complete block design with two factors: irrigation levels (at 55%, 70%, 85%, and 100% of the Evapotranspiration of the crop) and mulch types (un-mulched, plastic, and straw mulch), resulting in a total of twelve treatment combinations replicated three times. The results showed that irrigation levels and mulch significantly affect bulb yield, water productivity, and yield-attributing parameters. Applying 100% ETc level and straw mulch resulted in the highest yields of 39450 kg/ha and 41038 kg/ha, respectively. On the other hand, the lowest yields were obtained with 55% ETc levels and un-mulched treatments, with respective values of 30913 kg/ha and 33969 kg/ha. Water productivity was also higher for irrigation levels at 55% and 70% ETc compared to 85% and 100% ETc, with values of 10.1 kg/m&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;3&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt; and 9.7 kg/m&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;3&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt;, respectively. Additionally, straw mulch application resulted in significantly higher water productivity. Economic analysis indicated that straw mulch had a higher net return with 369% MRR (Marginal Rate of Return) and a benefit-cost ratio of 32.8, while applying a 70% ETc level resulted in a 125% MRR. Based on the results, 70% ETc level with straw mulch for onion production is recommended for the study area, considering bulb yield, water productivity, and economic viability.