Water Policy Research Articles

Estimation of irrigated crop artificial irrigation evapotranspiration in China

Agriculture water use accounts for 70% of the total water withdrawal worldwide. The evapotranspiration during crop growth is one of the important hydrological processes in the agricultural water cycle. This study proposed the concept of artificial irrigation evapotranspiration of irrigated crops to describe that the evapotranspiration caused by irrigation water use. Irrigated crops rely on two kinds of water sources: precipitation and irrigation water. With the construction of irrigation schemes, the artificial irrigation evapotranspiration plays an increasingly important role in the dualistic water cycle system of irrigated cropland. To reveal the amount of artificial irrigation evapotranspiration of 17 categories of irrigated crops in China, this study proposed a new quantitative model system which was established based on traditional evapotranspiration models and soil water balance models. Based on the new model system, we calculated the annual artificial irrigation evapotranspiration of irrigated crops for the period 2013 to 2017 in China. The results showed that the proportion of artificial irrigation evapotranspiration to the total evapotranspiration of irrigated crops was 41.3%, whose value was 228.1 km3 a−1. The artificial irrigation evapotranspiration in different agricultural water management regions were 90.0 km3 a−1 in the northeast region, 86.0 km3 a−1 in the southeast region, and relatively low 52.2 km3a−1 in the west region. The results of this study can provide methods for water management and policy–making in agricultural irrigated areas, and it can also provide a preliminary understanding of the influence of human activities on the dualistic water cycle in cropland.

Impact of climate change on water scarcity in Pakistan. Implications for water management and policy

ABSTRACT Water resources in Pakistan are under serious threat from climate change (CC), exacerbating water scarcity. The implications for water policy and management are far-reaching. Pakistan relies heavily on the Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS) for agricultural production and water supply, but the distribution and availability of water resources are threatened by changing climatic patterns, such as changing precipitation and melting glaciers. Water scarcity is heightened by faster glacial melt and erratic precipitation patterns, which affect the timing and quantity of water flow. Effective water management techniques, such as increased effectiveness, sustainable practices, and conservation measures, as well as robust infrastructure and governance are required to address these issues. Pakistan can benefit greatly from international cooperation and assistance to mitigate the impacts of CC and ensure water security for long-term development.

Drought, water management, and agricultural livelihoods: Understanding human-ecological system management and livelihood strategies of farmer's in rural California

Mitigating impact between agricultural livelihoods and water conservation efforts in the face of significant drought requires a sophisticated understanding of policy efforts enacted to manage water supply and the logic of human livelihood decision-making. This case study extends literature on human-water decision-making in agricultural areas by using a political ecology framework to understand how and why farmers facing significant water shortages make livelihood decisions, and how such decisions are affected by broader socio-political contexts. Specifically, we focus on farmers' livelihood strategies in the Central San Joaquin Valley of California. Here, the effects of extreme and persistent drought have resulted in a resource management governance structure that forces farmer decision-making within the narrow bounds of the newly emerging California water policy. We argue that government public policy intervention has created a potential system of “big winners and big losers,” leading to three divergent strategies farmers adopt: Nimbility, Abandonment, and Policy Engagement. These findings raise questions about how policy interventions shape livelihood strategies of farmers in the Tulare Lake Basin and by extension other areas where public policy intervention is emerging to respond to decreased water supply resources.

Examining the Prospects of Residential Water Demand Management Policy Regulations in Ethiopia: Implications for Sustainable Water Resource Management

This study examines the prospects of residential water demand management policy regulations in Ethiopia and their implications for sustainable water resource management. This study aims to evaluate the existing policy regulations and analyze their effectiveness in promoting efficient water use and conservation practices in residential areas. By considering the potential challenges and opportunities associated with these regulations, the research provides insights into the future of residential water demand management in Ethiopia and suggests strategies for enhancing sustainable water resource management. An integrated literature and policy document review, alongside observation and interviews, was used to assess the viability of residential water demand management policies. The assessment of current policy regulations for residential water demand management in Ethiopian urban towns has revealed significant shortcomings in promoting water conservation activities. Simple linear regression analysis of water consumption data from 2010 to 2020 showed no significant reduction in water usage, with an increase in average consumption from 43, 39, and 28 L per capita per day (LPCD) pre-policy to 72, 51, and 42 LPCD post-policy for Arba Minch, Ziway, and Debre Birhan, respectively. Hence, there is a need for significant improvements in the current water resource policy guidelines, which lack specificity, particularly in residential water demand management conservation strategies. The lack of awareness among residents regarding the importance of conserving their limited water resources is evident. To address these challenges and ensure the sustainability of the water supply, the government and policy developers must engage with various stakeholders, including the community, in the process of revising current policy documents. A more precise and tailored approach is necessary for its effective implementation.

Ten Years Later: How Water Crises in Flint and Detroit Transformed the Politics of U.S. Water Policy

Ten Years Later: How Water Crises in Flint and Detroit Transformed the Politics of U.S. Water Policy

Sustainable Water Service Tariff Model for Integrated Watershed Management: A Case Study in the Ecuadorian Andes

This study addresses the financial sustainability challenge of integrated watershed management (IWM) in regions with inadequate water service tariffs. A novel water service tariff model is proposed, incorporating supply costs, water loss reduction investments, and IWM expenses informed by user perceptions. The model is applied to an intermediate Andean city in southern Ecuador, where the current tariff impedes the financial viability of the water utility, reflecting a regional trend. The results indicate a necessary tariff increase exceeding 100% to cover the costs and support IWM. The economic value of watershed environmental services (WES) were estimated at USD 1,505,530.64 per year. This value translates to an average water consumption of 20 m3/user/month, equivalent to a WES of USD 2.60 per month. Despite the users’ willingness to pay falling below the estimated economic value of WES, there is a clear need for implementing incentive programs to promote water conservation and policy adjustments that favor the financial sustainability of water supply companies in developing countries.

The propensity for negative media reporting of the Murray-Darling Basin Plan in Australia

The Murray-Darling Basin (MDB) Plan, or simply ‘Basin Plan’, represents one of the world's largest returns from consumptive (irrigation) water extraction to environmental use. The Plan has been mired in controversy from when its first draft was burned by irrigators in 2010, and as such has been a source of extensive media reporting. Given the ability of journalism in both informing and influencing public debates, as well as the political deliberation process, we sought to understand the themes and representation of the Plan in media newspapers. This study analysed 6694 media articles referring to the Basin Plan, across 135 outlets, from 2008 to 2022. All articles were sentiment coded using four different natural language processing (NLP) models, with additional manual coding of randomly selected 552 articles. Three-quarters of the total articles were coded as negative using the best-fitting DistilBERT NLP sentiment analysis, while the manual coding suggested almost half were negative in tone. Both methods found that negative stories far outweighed positive stories, suggesting very little ‘balance’ in media Basin Plan reporting. A regression analysis found that rural media outlets were more likely to report negative MDB stories, and that the states of South Australia and Queensland were more likely to report positive stories. Themes of irrigator victimisation and community economic decline dominated news articles (especially negative stories); followed by Basin Plan process, outcomes and governance issues; fights between states; and environmental issues. Environmental themes were relatively less discussed, and Indigenous issues were only referred to in a tiny fraction of all media stories. The study's results provide evidence that the media plays critical roles in water policy debates, giving prominent coverage - with little critical discernment of actual economic impacts - to certain actors with clear ideological and vested interests in the outcomes. Far less media coverage was given to more complex issues such as climate change, long-term structural change for irrigation communities, ecological crises, and sharing water with those who have little.

Policy coherence assessment of water, energy, and food resources policies in the Tana River Basin, Kenya

Water, energy, and food resources are closely related in the water-energy-food (WEF) nexus, a tightly connected system in which impacts in one sector leads to changes in the other sectors. The WEF nexus approach studies these interactions to better understand their connections and implications across sectors, and is focused on making research practicable for policy. There is a clear lack of policy coherence studies to provide practical recommendations to achieve integrated resources management. This is true in the Tana River Basin (TRB), which provides abundant water, energy and food resources to the national economy and development of Kenya. This work carried out a WEF policy coherence assessment of the Tana River Basin. Results show that there are synergies and trade-offs across all resources sectors and their policy objectives. Water policies (e.g. to secure water availability) are generally evaluated as win-win, thus being supportive of attainment of goals in other policy sectors. Food policies (e.g. to develop the agricultural sector) show the highest number of trade-offs, suggesting these policies could be redesigned to minimise the trade-offs with other resource policies. This work highlights specifically which policies are relatively more or less supportive for holistic resources management in the TRB. In particular, the only TRB-level policy analysed (which is cross-resource in its ambition) shows synergies with national policy, offering opportunity for leveraging benefits and increasing implementation efficiency across resources. Strengthened cross-sectoral collaboration, joint workshops, and the establishment of a national cross-sectoral taskforce to develop aligned policies are recommended. This work provides a basis for similar studies across Africa, and promotes research that is of practical relevance.

SCARCITY OF WATER RESOURCES IN CENTRAL ASIA AS A FACTOR OF ECOLOGICAL MIGRATION

In the article, issues and the specificity of the deficit in the Central Asian region are considered as a factor of environmental migration. The climate on a global scale is affected by environmental disasters and crises in many countries of the world. The results of research show that the lack of fresh water in the near future represents a serious decline for people, which will lead to serious consequences: the meeting of the post and consideration of the questions will be held at the highest level and there is a need to control the migration of the population from the place, where there is no waste of water, the emergence of various social cataclysms and conflict situations. Central Asia is considered one of these treacherous regions, where the lack of water flows. The lack of water resources can not only attract millions of people, but also to combat conflicts and destabilize the political situation in the region, which has geostrategic knowledge. Therefore, the current political analysis of such problems is carried out, the identification of candidates, the search for solutions and the prognosis of the future. The author notes that in the long term in the Central Asian region, the problem of water scarcity will be aggravated due to high rates of population growth, in connection with which Interstate contradictions in the water and energy sector will deepen, and environmental migration will intensify. Water scarcity in Central Asia will be analyzed as a natural factor causing spontaneous migration, its consequences will be predicted, and proposals will be made that will contribute to the implementation of environmental, migration and water policies at the regional level.

Modeling of agricultural water policies to guarantee water supply under climate change

The efficient and sustainable use of water has become a necessity in regions prone to drought and water scarcity. One such region is the Fars province of Iran, where farmers often face uncertainties in irrigation water supply due to frequent droughts and declining groundwater levels. This study employed a quantitative research methodology, utilizing surveys and questionnaires to collect data. Specifically, the study used the choice experiment (CE) methodology to evaluate policy attributes aimed at guaranteeing agricultural water supply. The research was conducted in Marvdasht County within the Fars province, with a sample size of 170 farmers and 4080 observations collected in 2015. The collected data were analyzed using the conditional logit (CL) model. The sample size was determined using the stratified random sampling method. The results of the study indicate that age has a negative effect on farmers' willingness to pay (WTP) for guaranteed water supply, while education has a positive effect. Additionally, the study found that farmers' WTP for different policies varied, with the highest WTP observed for the use of water-saving technologies (estimated at 254.89 IRR per m3) across all areas. Consequently, the study recommends that policies promoting the adoption of water-saving technologies should be prioritized globally. It is worth noting that water policies can significantly differ between countries and regions due to various factors, including local water challenges, legal frameworks, cultural norms, and socio-economic conditions. Therefore, when formulating water policies, it is crucial to consider the specific context and tailor them to the unique circumstances of each region or country.

Assessing the impacts of climate change on agriculture and water systems via coupled human-hydrological modeling

Understanding the intricate relationship between farmers’ water usage and its hydrological effects is crucial for developing adaptable water policies. However, conducting such an analysis proves challenging due to the lack of appropriate modeling tools that comprehensively integrate water policies, water utilization, and hydrological processes. To address this challenge, this study introduces an innovative socio-hydrological framework to investigate the interplay between farmer actions and water resources. This framework integrates an agent-based model, which is based on the Value-Belief-Norm (VBN) theory, linked with a distributed hydrological model (SWAT-MODFLOW) to capture farmer behaviors. The modeling framework is applied to the Mahabad River Basin to assess water use and hydrological impacts. To assess the framework's ability, Nash–Sutcliffe (NS) efficiency and the coefficient of determination (R2) are computed for simulating runoff, while Mean Absolute Residual Error (MAE) and Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) are computed for simulating groundwater head. Results demonstrate the acceptable performance of the proposed model, with NS = 0.61, R2 = 0.69, MAE = 1.16, and RMSE = 1.92. Moreover, this study integrates climate change data from the 6th IPCC report to evaluate the model's responsiveness to altering climate conditions. Findings suggest that farmers facing economic challenges tend to opt for high-profit crops to ameliorate their financial situation. So, without policy changes, climate change will reduce crop yield, farmer income, and water storage. Furthermore, the study evaluates enhancing irrigation efficiency and groundwater extraction restrictions to mitigate climate change effects. Enhancing irrigation efficiency annually conserves 38.39 MCM, boosts crop yields by 6 %, elevates farmer incomes, and encourages a shift toward low-water-consuming crops, contributing to regional groundwater sustainability. Overall, the results of this study can enhance our comprehension of the impact of human activities on hydrological cycles, offering valuable insights for water managers.

Equity in water resource management: A theoretical dynamism

AbstractAs elusive as the concept of equity may be, it has nevertheless been placed at the heart of global water policy. Yet inequities in access to water and participation in water resources management persist all over the world. The global water crisis is one of inequitable access rather than availability. This critical review explores equity and equality in water resources management through multiple lenses, considering its numerous philosophical underpinnings, and offers a definition of ‘water equity’. We suggest that human rights, procedural and distributive equity (social justice), and cultural, socioeconomic, and political elements (context) are the pillars of water equity. The inter‐relatedness between them and causal effects of each of the pillars are exposed, as are cross cutting features. This contribution to the theoretical interpretation of ‘water equity’ suggests that it is a complex dynamism, a complexity of interrelated features that are constantly in flux. Acknowledging the inherent characteristics of water equity will greatly facilitate its actualisation.

Integrated environmental-economic modelling for cross sectoral water policy evaluation

The Water Framework Directive (WFD) has set a deadline for 2027 to reach at least good ecological status (GES) in coastal waters in the EU. As nutrient pollution (eutrophication) is one of the main pressures in most EU coastal waters, and Danish waters in particular, significant nutrient reductions are required. In this paper, we take an integrated environmental-economic modelling approach to assess alternative strategies to mitigate non-point source nutrient pollution. A spatially explicit optimization model, TargetEconN, is implemented at the Danish national scale and extended to include mussel production as a marine water quality improvement measure. Different eutrophication mitigation strategies investigated in the model are characterized by whether nitrogen emissions are reduced at the source, between the source and the recipient e.g., by establishing wetlands, or in the recipient itself. We run scenarios exploring the uncertainty in baseline load assumptions and the effects of mussel farming. The results show that the potential for marine measures depends on the baseline load assumptions and that marine measures have a limited impact on the overall costs of achieving GES. The results also show that including marine measures has a significant indirect impact through the influence on the spatial distribution of land-based measures. We conclude that including mussel farming in policy initiatives to meet WFD targets has potential, but that the distributional effects across sectors and spillover effects to other policy targets should be a central part of the ex-ante policy discussions. We argue therefore that spatially explicit integrated modelling, as the model developed for this paper, can offer useful insights to manage the unescapable trade-offs in effective policy design to meet the WFD.

Taking away the economic “water productivity” illusion: An indicator inapt to inform meaningful water policies

Economic water productivity, gross value added per volume of water use, is a widely used metric by international and national organizations to monitor the impacts of economic activity on water use. In fact, this metric is often used synonymously with water efficiency. Considering this, our study analyzes the adequacy of economic water productivity as a Key Performance Indicator (KPI) for monitoring if water use has become more efficient. Using 15-year panel data for the 27 European countries and carrying out a sensitivity analysis with seven Asian countries to extrapolate our results, we address our hypothesis that changes in economic water productivity are not driven by increases in physical water efficiency but mostly originate from different sources of economic growth. Our results show that the improvements in economic water productivity are not necessarily associated with improvements in water efficiency but with advances in capital intensity and, hence, in labor productivity. Accordingly, we encourage policy-makers to replace this indicator – which is based solely on an economic vision rather than ecological concerns – with indicators that report the actual pressure on the water resources (e.g., absolute water consumption or physical water-efficiency indicators) or those that at least include their driving factors in the analysis (e.g. capital intensity, labor productivity). This would allow decision makers designing policies that are more effective and genuinely ensure sustainable water management. Otherwise, economically biased political assessments likely will provide erroneous results, leading to policy recommendations causing undesired environmental impacts in the medium and long term.

The Role of Precipitation in Sustainable Water Management: Insights from Atmospheric Science

Water scarcity is a growing challenge in many regions around the world, including Nigeria, where precipitation patterns have a significant impact on water availability for human and ecological systems. This research paper explores the role of precipitation in sustainable water management, drawing insights from atmospheric science research. In particular, we conduct a trend analysis of precipitation in key areas of Nigeria using the new Innovative Trend Analysis (ITA) method. ITA is a powerful statistical method that allows for the detection of trends and periodicities in time series data, even in the presence of non-linear trends and data uncertainties. Our analysis aims to provide a better understanding of how precipitation has changed over time in Nigeria and what implications these changes have for water management strategies and practices. The potential for atmospheric science research to inform future water policy and planning decisions are also discussed. The examination of precipitation trends using the ITA approach revealed a range of patterns, from reducing or trendless scatter points in the southern vegetation zones to increasing precipitation trends in the savannah regions; this emphasizes the need for context-specific water management strategies. Regions experiencing declining precipitation may necessitate adaptive measures to address potential water scarcity, while those with increasing trends require strategies to mitigate potential flooding risks. By combining meteorological data with reviewed insights from other disciplines such as hydrology, ecology, and economics, we can work towards a more sustainable and equitable management of water resources in Nigeria and even beyond.

Navigating Kuwait's water scarcity challenges: A holistic analysis of water resources, environmental impact, cost, and policy implications

Due to fossil fuels abundance at a relatively low cost of extraction, Kuwait relies heavily on non-conventional water resources, namely desalination and treated wastewater, to sustain its water sector. However, Kuwait finds itself balancing between the benefits of its rentier economy and the challenges posed by its reliance on fossil fuels, navigating a complex landscape of economic and environmental sustainability. This paper endeavors to explore the complex paradox surrounding Kuwait's water resources, examining the role of desalination, wastewater treatment, and groundwater extraction. It discusses into the barriers hindering efforts towards reform and mitigation strategies aimed at promoting sustainable water management practices. Including obstacles rooted in various socioeconomic and sociopolitical factors, such as low utility tariffs, heavy dependence on fossil fuels, and deficiencies in the country's water infrastructure. Through the application of a life cycle assessment and a detailed cost analysis, this research unveils the significant environmental and financial burdens associated with Kuwait's current water supply methods, prompting concerns regarding their sustainability and the nation's water security. While the primary focus of this study is on Kuwait, the analysis and findings hold broader implications and repercussions.

Compliance of Legal Restrictions in Potable Water Abstraction in Rajshahi WASA Area: An Overview

The ground water level in Barind area Rajshahi rise and falls continuously with the advance of wet and dry season. A growing population, urbanization, increasing pressure on land and water resources by different competing usage and degradation of scarce resources challenge the extraction, management and protection of the water resources of Rajshahi as well as all over the Bangladesh. Agriculture is the major water using sector for ground water irrigation with rice cultivation, the single most important activity in the economy. Industry is also liable for large scale water withdrawal. Due to water level depletion ‘deep tube well’ especially submersible pump is randomly used in many of the houses in Rajsahi WASA area. Apart from agriculture, presently uncontrolled water abstraction for domestic or household purposes causes serious threats to sustainable ground water management. Due to this excessive stress upon the ground water resource, the yield capacity is being reduced and the need to conserve them is now generally recognized. Some of the legislations have clear guidelines and restrictions on personal source of ground water abstractions. National water policy, 1999 stressed the need for the protection of surface water and groundwater resources. WASA Act, 1996; Water Act, 2013; Local Govt. Act 2009 are the major instruments in this respect. This study has been an attempt to review the relevant laws regarding restrictions on domestic water abstraction and to examine through field survey the real scenario how far these are being complied with.

The DPSIR Model-Based Sustainability Assessment of Urban Water Resources: A Comparative Study of Zhuhai and Macao

Based on the driving force-pressure-state-impact-response (DPSIR) model, 19 indicators were selected to construct a comparison between Zhuhai and Macao, two adjacent cities at the estuary of the Pearl River in China, which have different development models and water resource sustainable development strategies. Factors that may affect the sustainability of water resources were screened and placed according to the relationships of the five subsystems in the DPSIR model, establishing a sustainable evaluation model for water resources in the two cities. The results analyzed by Principal Component Analysis and Entropy methods showed that (1) Zhuhai City was greatly affected by the driving force, while Macao was greatly affected by the state system from 2012 to 2021. (2) From the trend changes, it can be seen that, in recent years, the water resources of the two cities have been moving towards sustainable development, and the management and protection of water resources have achieved remarkable results. From the evaluation results, it can be seen that implementing urban water-saving activities, strengthening the proportion of environmental water conservancy, public measures in public investment, upgrading sewage treatment machinery to improve sewage treatment rates, and other measures can effectively improve the current situation of water resources in both regions. In the future, the Zhuhai and Macao cities may continue to face a series of water resource pressures brought on by socio-economic developments. Therefore, an active adjustment of the development of the measurement of controlling wastewater discharge and saving water resources was proposed, adhering to the direction of sustainable development, and ensuring the benign development of socio-economic conditions and the ecological environment. This study can provide data to support regional water resource security and policy formulation with different political systems.

Lessons From 30 Years of Water Crises and Water Policy

Key TakeawaysMost water crises are caused by events that are beyond the control of water system managers.New or updated regulations will not necessarily address all water crises.Extreme weather events are increasingly problematic, so water systems need to invest in preparedness; the question is how much to invest.

Water Quality Analysis Through Satellite Images

This project report presents a comprehensive study on water quality analysis using satellite images. The increasing global demand for water resources and the growing impact of human activities on water ecosystems underscore the need for efficient and scalable methods for water quality assessment. Leveraging remote sensing technology, particularly satellite imagery, provides a promising solution for monitoring large water bodies at a regional and global scale. The project focuses on the development and implementation of a robust methodology for water quality analysis through the utilization of satellite images. Key objectives include the extraction of relevant water quality indicators such as turbidity, chlorophyll-a concentration, and dissolved organic matter. Image processing techniques, including spectral analysis and machine learning algorithms, are employed to derive quantitative information from satellite data. The study employs a multi-sensor approach, utilizing data from various satellite platforms, to enhance the accuracy and reliability of the water quality assessments. Additionally, ground truth data collected from in situ measurements and laboratory analysis are integrated into the analysis to validate and calibrate the remote sensing results. The project contributes to the advancement of remote sensing applications in environmental monitoring, providing a cost-effective and timely method for water quality assessment. The findings of this research have implications for water resource management, environmental conservation, and policy formulation. Furthermore, the developed methodology can be applied to monitor changes in water quality over time, supporting sustainable water resource management practices. The report concludes with recommendations for further research and the potential integration of the developed methodology into existing water quality monitoring systems. Overall, the project highlights the significance of satellite-based approaches in addressing contemporary challenges related to water quality on a global scale.