Point Of Water Research Articles

The persistent impact of electoral incentives on the quality of infrastructure

What determines the quality of a nation’s infrastructure? We show that electoral incentives at the time of construction have persistent effects on the functionality of contemporary African water systems. We apply a common event-study approach to the universe of water points in Nigeria, Sierra Leone, and Tanzania built over the period from 1970–2014. Across all three settings, we find that infrastructure installed in the run-up to an election is significantly more likely to be functioning today than those installed shortly after elections. Our results suggest that politicians respond to electoral incentives by adjusting the provider of installed water systems. Together, the findings suggest that public officials optimally respond to responsive but myopic citizen evaluations of public performance.

Neighbours' Mini Water Networks in Saguia, Arrangements, Solidarity and Innovation in Urban Water Services in Niamey, Niger

Niamey, the capital of Niger, like other cities in sub-Saharan Africa, is experiencing water insecurity due to the mismatch between rapid urban growth and substantial investment in water services. On the outskirts of the city, where the water distribution network is almost non-existent or inconsistent, private water points are increasingly being built, particularly private boreholes, as an alternative solution. This article based on a methodology combining qualitative and quantitative data collected from 20 beneficiaries, 3 suppliers and 5 carters, focuses on the mini water networks of neighbours. A new form of solidarity around water in Saguia, an outlying district of the city of Niamey, through the 'co-production' of water services and the mutualisation of water installations between neighbours-providers and neighbours-beneficiaries. This new 'social' service offer, built around arrangements between neighbours, deserves to be studied by analysing it as both an innovation and a social response adapted to the absence of a formal water network and to the uncontrolled and planned urban sprawl in Niamey. The neighbours' mini water networks thus contribute to the universalization of access to water and to urban sprawl by allowing the construction and occupation of new formal and informal neighbourhoods not covered by the official water network.

The Influence of Temperature on Anisotropic Wettability Revealed by Friction Force Measurement.

Anisotropic surfaces with special wettability under various temperatures are of both fundamental interest and practical importance in many fields. However, little attention has been paid to the surfaces at temperatures between room temperature and the boiling point of water, which is partially due to the lack of a suitable characterization technique. Here, using the MPCP (monitoring of the position of the capillary's projection) technique, the influence of the temperature on the friction of a water droplet on the graphene-PDMS (GP) micropillar array (GP-MA) is investigated. The friction forces in the orthogonal directions and the anisotropy in the friction decrease when the GP-MA surface is heated up, based on the photothermal effect of graphene. The friction forces also decrease along the pre-stretching direction but increase in the orthogonal direction when the stretching is increased. The change in the contact area, the Marangoni flow inside a droplet, and the mass reduction are responsible for the temperature dependence. The findings strengthen our fundamental understanding of the dynamics of drop friction at high temperatures and could pave the way for the design of new functional surfaces with special wettabilities.

Assessing the functionality of water supply handpumps in a Sub-Saharan Africa rural environment: a practical application in eight councils in the Mvila Division, Southern Cameroon

Abstract This paper presents updated water handpump functionality estimates for eight councils in the Mvila Division, southern region of Cameroon. The methodological approach was based on a technical inspection of 647 water points (181 boreholes and 466 wells) and semi-structured interviews with 500 stakeholders, including 103 water point committee members, 389 water users, and 8 water experts. According to the findings, one out of every three hand pumps is inoperable. Based on this rate, approximately 1.3 billion CFA francs (approximately 2 million US dollars) invested by the government, communities, and development partners are immobilized and do not generate any benefit for affected rural communities. This high level of handpump non-functionality is due to the low economic viability of water point management, the poor functionality of water point committees, and the poorly structured handpump maintenance chain. The pooling of water point management at the scale of the Mvila Division appears to be an avenue to be explored to improve the functionality of the handpump.

Hydrogeochemical processes and groundwater evolution in complex volcanic highlands and alluvio-lacustrine deposits (Upper Blue Nile), Ethiopia.

Lake Tana basin encompasses a wide regional volcanic aquifer system, in the northwestern highlands of Ethiopia. It has significant water resource potential for water supply and irrigation purposes. The objective of this study was to assess the physiochemical characteristics of the surface water-groundwater and investigate the processes controlling groundwater chemistry. A total of 273 water samples were collected from different water points for major ions and stable isotope analysis, representing different physiographic and hydrogeologic regions. Multivariate statistical, graphical methods, saturation and speciation modelling were used jointly to characterize water chemistry and to define hydrogeochemical processes. The Piper plots in combination with cluster analysis and isotope hydrological data indicate that, generally, the groundwater chemistry of the basin can be classified into (1) low TDS Ca-HCO3, Ca-Mg-HCO3, and Ca-Na-Mg-HCO3 type water which is relatively enriched in δ18O-δ2H and depleted in δ13C. These are recharge waters, which are characterized by low rock-water interaction; (2) brackish Mg-Na-Ca-HCO3 type water which is relatively depleted in δ18O-δ2H and enriched in δ13C; and (3) low TDS Na-(Ca)-HCO3 and Na-HCO3 type water which varies from less to more depleted in δ18O-δ2H and is characterized by relatively enriched δ13C. The cross-plots of the major cations vs. HCO3- and stability diagrams show that the primary processes controlling the groundwater evolution in the Lake Tana basin are alumino-silicate weathering and dissolution. Studying the hydrogeochemical characteristics of a complex geologic system with integrated approach helps to understand the complex groundwater flow system and flow dynamics, which in turn helps for proper groundwater utilization and future management.

Study design and baseline to evaluate water service provision among peri-urban communities in Kasai Oriental, Democratic Republic of the Congo.

We present a study design and baseline results to establish the impact of interventions on peri-urban water access, security and quality in Kasai Oriental province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In standard development practice, program performance is tracked via monitoring and evaluation frameworks of varying sophistication and rigor. Monitoring and evaluation, while usually occurring nearly concurrently with program delivery, may or may not measure parameters that can identify performance with respect to the project's overall goals. Impact evaluations, often using tightly controlled trial designs and conducted over years, challenge iterative program evolution. This study will pilot an implementation science impact evaluation approach in the areas immediately surrounding 14 water service providers, at each surveying 100 randomly-selected households and conducting water quality assessments at 25 randomly-selected households and five water points every three months. We present preliminary point-of-collection and point-of-use baseline data. This study is utilizing a variety of short- and medium-term monitoring and impact evaluation methods to provide feedback at multiple points during the intervention. Rapid feedback monitoring will assess the continuity of water services, point-of-consumption and point-of-collection microbial water quality, household water security, household measures of health status, ability and willingness to pay for water and sanitation service provision, and service performance monitoring. Long-term evaluation will focus on the use of qualitative comparative analysis whereby we will investigate the combination of factors that lead to improved water access, security and quality.

Dehydration of a crystal hydrate at subglacial temperatures

Water is one of the most important substances on our planet1. It is ubiquitous in its solid, liquid and vaporous states and all known biological systems depend on its unique chemical and physical properties. Moreover, many materials exist as water adducts, chief among which are crystal hydrates (a specific class of inclusion compound), which usually retain water indefinitely at subambient temperatures2. We describe a porous organic crystal that readily and reversibly adsorbs water into 1-nm-wide channels at more than 55% relative humidity. The water uptake/release is chromogenic, thus providing a convenient visual indication of the hydration state of the crystal over a wide temperature range. The complementary techniques of X-ray diffraction, optical microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry and molecular simulations were used to establish that the nanoconfined water is in a state of flux above −70 °C, thus allowing low-temperature dehydration to occur. We were able to determine the kinetics of dehydration over a wide temperature range, including well below 0 °C which, owing to the presence of atmospheric moisture, is usually challenging to accomplish. This discovery unlocks opportunities for designing materials that capture/release water over a range of temperatures that extend well below the freezing point of bulk water.

Effect of Pressure on Hydrogen Isotope Fractionation in Methane during Methane Hydrate Formation at Temperatures Below the Freezing Point of Water

Isotopic fractionation of methane between gas and solid hydrate phases provides data regarding hydrate-forming environments, but the effect of pressure on isotopic fractionation is not well understood. In this study, methane hydrates were synthesized in a pressure cell, and the hydrogen isotope compositions of the residual and hydrate-bound gases were determined. The δ2H of hydrate-bound methane formed below the freezing point of water was 5.7–10.3‰ lower than that of residual methane, indicating that methane hydrate generally encapsulates lighter molecules (CH4) instead of CH32H. The fractionation factors αH-V of the gas and hydrate phases were in the range 0.9881–0.9932 at a temperature and pressure of 223.3–268.2 K and 1.7–19.5 MPa, respectively. Furthermore, αH-V increased with increasing formation pressure, suggesting that the difference in the hydrogen isotopes of the hydrate-bound methane and surrounding methane yields data regarding the formation pressure. Although the differences in the hydrogen isotopes observed in this study are insignificant, precise analyses of the isotopes of natural hydrates in the same area enable the determination of the pressure during hydrate formation.

Can Novel Synthetic Disperse Dyes for Polyester Fabric Dyeing Provide Added Value?

In this review, we present preparation methods for a series of new disperse dyes that we have synthesized over the past thirteen years in an environmentally safe and economical way using innovative methods, conventional methods, or using microwave technology as a safe and uniform method of heating. The results showed that in many of the synthetic reactions we carried out, the use of the microwave strategy provides us with the product in minutes and with higher productivity compared to the conventional methods. This strategy provides or may dispense with the use of harmful organic solvents. As an environmentally friendly approach, we used microwave technology in dyeing polyester fabrics at 130 degrees Celsius, and then, we also introduced ultrasound technology in dyeing polyester fabrics at 80 degrees Celsius as an alternative to dyeing methods at the boiling point of water. Here, the goal was not only to save energy, but also to obtain a color depth higher than the color depth that can be obtained by traditional dyeing methods. It is worth noting that obtaining a higher color depth and using less energy means that the amount of dye remaining in the dyeing bath is less, which facilitates the processing of dyeing baths and therefore does not cause harm to the environment. It is necessary after obtaining dyed polyester fabrics to show their fastness properties, so we explained that these dyes have high fastness properties. The next thought was to use nano-metal oxides to treat polyester fabrics in order to provide these fabrics with important properties. Therefore, we present the strategy for treating polyester fabrics with titanium dioxide nano-particles (TiO2 NPs) or zinc oxide nano-particles (ZnO NPs) in order to enhance their anti-microbial properties, increase their UV protection, increase their light fastness, and enhance their self-cleaning properties. We reviewed the biological activity of all of the newly prepared dyes and showed that most of these dyes possess strong biological activity.

Hydrogen Production by Catalytic Supercritical Water Gasification of Black Liquor-Based Wastewater

In this work, the wastewater obtained from the hydrothermal liquefaction of black liquor was treated and valorized for hydrogen production by supercritical water gasification (SCWG). The influence of the main process parameters on the conversion yield was studied. The experiments were conducted at three different temperatures (below and above the critical point of water): 350 °C, 450 °C and 600 °C. The results showed that by increasing the temperature from 350 °C to 600 °C, the total gas yield was highly improved (from 1.9 mol gas/kg of dried feedstock to 13.1 mol gas/kg of dried feedstock). The H2 composition was higher than that of CH4 and CO2 at 600 °C, and the HHV of the obtained gas was 61.2 MJ/kg. The total organic carbon (TOC) removal efficiency was also improved by increasing the temperature, indicating that the SCWG process could be used for both applications: (i) for wastewater treatment; (ii) for producing a high calorific gas. The experiments with the Raney-nickel catalyst were performed in order to study the catalyst’s influence on the conversion yield. The results indicated that the catalyst enhances carbon conversion and gas production from mild to higher temperatures. The maximum total gas yield obtained with this catalyst was 32.4 mol gas/kg of dried feedstock at 600 °C, which is 2.5 times higher than that obtained at the same operating conditions without a catalyst. The H2 yield and the HHV of the obtained gas with the catalyst were 20.98 mol gas/kg dried feedstock and 80.2 MJ/kg, respectively. However, the major contribution of the catalytic SCWG process was the improvement of the total gas yield at mild operating temperatures (450 °C), and the obtained performance was even higher than that obtained at 600 °C without catalyst (17.81 mol gas/kg dried feedstock and 13.1 mol gas/kg dried feedstock, respectively). This is a sustainable approach for treating wastewater at mild temperatures by catalytic SCWG.

The temperature of maximum density of diluted aqueous solutions of non-polar solutes: A molecular simulation study using TIP4P/2005 water and LJ point solutes

The effect of non polar solutes on the temperature of maximum density of water, TMD, is analyzed in detail by means of molecular simulations over an ample pressure interval ranging from negative to very high pressures. Non polar solutes are represented by single Lennard-Jones (LJ) sites, whose non-polar character is tuned with the width and depth of the Lennard-Jones water-solute potential parameters. Our analysis is focused on the behavior of the partial molar volume of the solute at infinite solution, whose thermal dependence is correlated with changes in the TMD. We find that for pressures below −200 bar all possible LJ water-solute potential parameters decrease the TMD, i.e. the solute acts as a “structure breaker”. At higher pressures, it is always possible to find a range of LJ parameters which induce an increase of the TMD, whose magnitude rises gradually with pressure. Our results are consistent with previous simulations of non polar gases in solution and with theoretical studies in the case of small LJ centers. It will be shown that the partial molar volume of an ideal gas at infinite dilution can provide information concerning the existence and size of the LJ parameter space that induces TMD increases for a given water model. Finally, we analyze the changes in the TMD in terms of the competition between low density and high density water states. We find that the temperature dependence of the variation of the low density water mole fraction with the addition of LJ solutes seems to be at the source of the changes in the TMD.

Pressure melting of pore ice in frozen rock under compression

The pressure-melting effect of ice can lead to changes in the relative content of ice and unfrozen water in frozen rocks, as well as the pore structure, which will have a substantial impact on the mechanical behavior of frozen rocks. In order to study the pressure-melting effect of frozen sandstone, uniaxial compression tests were conducted at varying freezing temperatures, while changes in electrical resistance were recorded. The phase composition in pores was tested by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The results indicate that: (1) The electrical resistance of saturated frozen rocks decrease rapidly in microcrack-compaction (M-C) stage and slowly in elastic deformation (E-D) and microcrack propagation (M-P) stages with the increase of strain, which is very different from oven-dried rock. (2) The average reduction rate of electrical resistance in M-C stage rises at 0 °C ∼ -4 °C, and remains constant at −4 °C ∼ -20 °C. (3) At 0 °C ∼ −4 °C, the free, capillary and part of adsorbed water in the rock are frozen. At −4 °C ∼ -20 °C, adsorbed water is frozen. Curvature induced premelting severely depresses the freezing point of water in microcracks, while, the stress concentration effect in microcracks induces pressure melting of pore ice. Therefore, we propose: (1) The pressure-melting effect of frozen sandstone occurs mostly in the M-C stage. (2) At −2 °C, the pressure-melting effect causes the melting of ice frozen by free and capillary water, and at −4 °C ∼ -20 °C, this effect leads to the melting of ice frozen by adsorbed water, rising the unfrozen water content, which may alter the mechanical behavior of frozen rocks.

Delineation of Groundwater Potential Area using an AHP, Remote Sensing, and GIS Techniques in the Ifni Basin, Western Anti-Atlas, Morocco

An assessment of potential groundwater areas in the Ifni basin, located in the western Anti-Atlas range of Morocco, was conducted based on a multicriteria analytical approach that integrated a set of geomorphological and hydroclimatic factors influencing the availability of this resource. This approach involved the use of geographic information systems (GIS) and hierarchical analytical process (AHP) models. Different factors were classified and weighted according to their contribution to and impact on groundwater reserves. Their normalized weights were evaluated using a pairwise comparison matrix. Four classes of potentiality emerged: very high, high, moderate, and low, occupying 15.22%, 20.17%, 30.96%, and 33.65%, respectively, of the basin’s area. A groundwater potential map (GWPA) was validated by comparison with data from 134 existing water points using a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve. The AUC was calculated at 80%, indicating the good predictive accuracy of the AHP method. These results will enable water operators to select favorable sites with a high groundwater potential.

Equilibrium hydrogen isotope fractionation between portlandite/brucite and water: Implication from the vibrational spectra at elevated temperature and pressure

Minerals in brucite-type structure, including brucite (Mg(OH)2) and portlandite (Ca(OH)2), have been studied as important analogs of hydrous silicate minerals for their thermodynamic properties, including equilibrium hydrogen and oxygen isotope fractionations between minerals and water at elevated temperatures and pressures. In this study, Raman and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra were collected at high-temperature (T) and high-pressure (P) conditions on synthetic hydrogenated and deuterated portlandite samples (i.e., Ca(OH)2 and Ca(OD)2), and their isobaric and isothermal mode Grüneisen parameters, as well as anharmonic parameters, were then evaluated. These high-precision vibrational spectra enable the evaluation of thermodynamic properties of portlandite (ΔU, CV, CP and ΔS) up to 427 °C, to which anharmonicity has positive contributions. More importantly, they help to determine the isobaric (at P = 1 bar) β factors of brucite and portlandite for equilibrium D/H fractionation considering anharmonic effects, and the D/H fractionation factor (103∙lnα) between brucite/portlandite and water at high-P,T conditions. The calculated equilibrium fractionation factor (lnαbrucite-water) agrees with experimental results in the temperature range from 300 to 647 K (∼27 to ∼374 °C, the critical point of water) within analytical uncertainties estimated using Monte Carlo method. The Ab initio calculation using DFT theory and VASP program was also carried out to obtain phonon spectra for brucite and portlandite with three-split hydrogen sites and to evaluate the dispersion effect, which is found to be smaller than the statistical uncertainty at high temperatures. Our results show that the internal OH-stretching modes in brucite/portlandite play a dominant role in determining the β values, and the anharmonic OH-stretching potential (xi parameter) contributes significantly to the D/H fractionation factor. Because previous studies show that OH-stretching frequencies generally decrease with increasing mass of cation in the metallic hydroxide having similar crystal structure, our results imply that the deuterium isotope may be preferentially enriched in the hydroxide phase with the light cation bonded to the hydroxyl group, which is also consistent with the observed D/H fractionations among hydrous silicates.

Simulating a flexible water model as rigid: Best practices and lessons learned.

Two ways to create rigid versions of flexible models are explored. The rigid model can assume the Model's Geometry (MG) as if the molecule is not interacting with any other molecules or the ensemble averaged geometry (EG) under a particular thermodynamic condition. Although the MG model is more straightforward to create, it leads to relatively poor performance. The EG model behaves similarly to the corresponding flexible model (the FL model) and, in some cases, agrees even better with experiments. While the difference between the EG and the FL models is mostly a result of flexibility, the MG and EG models have different dipole moments as a result of an effective induction in the condensed phase. For the three water models studied, the property that shows the most difference is the temperature dependence of density. The MG version of the water model by adaptive force matching for ice and liquid does not possess a temperature of maximum density, which is attributed to a downshift of the putative liquid-liquid phase transition line, leading to the hypothesized second critical point of liquid water to manifest at negative pressure. A new three-phase coexistence method for determining the melting temperature of ice is also presented.

The distribution of vertebrate roadkill varies by season, surrounding environment, and animal class

Due to rapid human expansion in the last century, wildlife roadkill is becoming a concerning threat to biodiversity and human safety. The frequency of roadkill events depends on factors related to specific traits of the road—tortuosity or the presence of fences, among others—and the animal ecology—such as activity patterns, reproductive season, or thermoregulation. These, in turn, are related to environmental factors, with seasonal variations. Here, we assessed roadkill mortality of terrestrial vertebrates over the year. To do this, we sampled 10 road sections (of 3 km, by walk) in the south of Spain for a full year, registering the carcasses of run-over vertebrates. Then, we analysed the spatiotemporal patterns of roadkill events for the four vertebrates’ classes and the effects of road traits (presence of fence, tortuosity, distance to water point) and environmental variables (mean temperature and precipitation). Mammals suffered the highest mortality by roadkill (45.72%). The frequency of collisions was independent of tortuosity, presence of fences, and precipitation, while mean temperature significantly increased the probability of collision of mammals, birds, and reptiles. There was a seasonal effect in the number of collisions, which spatial pattern depended on the class of vertebrates. All this leads us to conclude that, to reduce the impact caused by roadkill mortality on wildlife, we need specific measures to be taken timely in each critical place and for each vertebrate group.

Fluoride Concentration in Both Tap Water and Drinking Bottled Water (Commercial) in Baninah Area -Benghazi, Northeastern Libya

Drinking bottled water has become both popular and increasingly controversial. as a result of the use of these techniques, some of the necessary elements in water are exposed to remove it such as fluoride. For this reason, the present study aimed to determine the fluoride content in both Tap Water and some types of Bottled water (Commercial) in the Baninah area -Benghazi. Six different types of bottled water from the local market, and three sampling point of tap water (water network supply) were collected for analysis of pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), and fluoride for all samples. The results revealed a decrease in total dissolved salts in some types of bottled water compared to the Libyan standard specifications for the quality of drinking water. While the Fluoride content in bottled water and tap water showed fluoride concentrations lower than 1.5 mg/l according to the WHO standards and Libyan standards for drinking water. This requires a medical study to know the other sources that compensate for the lack of fluoride in the water (tap water network supply - bottled water).

Use of Nature Based Materials for Textile Wastewater Treatment - A Review

Textile products remain one of the basic products the human being cannot do without. Textile manufacturing industry is an important source point of waste water as the production of textiles requires large amount of water and over 90% of the water is discharged as waste. Due to the fact that textile products are produced in varieties of colours and patterns, use of dyes and other chemicals are usually unavoidable. consequently, effluents from the manufacturing process contain a quite number of organic and inorganic chemical compounds that have been found to have hazardous impacts on the environment. Coagulation and adsorption processes are important parts conventional waste water treatment methods. The cost of acquiring chemical coagulants and activated adsorbent has triggered research towards low cost alternatives with eco-friendly properties. In this paper, the use of natural coagulants and adsorbents for treatment of textile wastewater is looked into to cover various types of the natural materials employed for the abatement of various pollutants from the industrial effluent. The principle of adsorption and coagulations, methods used in the preparation of the natural coagulants and adsorbents and their application to real textile wastewater-this covers the review of reported works in the recent decade and the latest trend in the treatment textile waste water in such a way that environmental protection and human health are prioritized as textile waste water is known for its toxic constituents. In addition, the survey reveals the research gap in the area of application of nature based materials to industrial textile waste water which may be of importance for intending researchers in natural coagulation and adsorption.

Environmental Impact of Road Salt on Inland Lakes in the Township of Leeds and the Thousand Islands

In Canada we use an annual amount of almost 7 million tons of sodium chloride to keep our roads ice free in the winter. Road salt is the mineral form of sodium chloride (NaCl), and it de-ices the roads by decreasing the freezing point of water. Most of this road salt ends up in the surrounding ecosystems and waterways. This contamination impacts ecosystem balance, the species in the area, and the drinkability of our water. This research aims to determine if the excessive use of road salt in the winter influences the chloride levels of inland lakes in the township of Leeds and the Thousand Island and what effects this may have had. The lakes looked at in the township are Temperance Lake, Gananoque Lake, Gananoque River, South Lake, Killenbeck Lake and Lyndhurst Lake. These lakes are all located next to a major roadway however, they vary in level of urbanization the area has experienced. Annual samples were taken from 6 lakes in the spring and summer. The same sample points were visited every year at similar times of year. Using statistical analysis and GIS software we are able to see if there is a reoccurring pattern in increasing and decreasing chloride levels in proximity to where the road salt is applied.

A Cross-Sectional Study on the Detection of Extended Spectrum Beta-Lactamase (ESBL) E. coli Producers in Groundwater in Lusaka District

Background: Most of the peri-urban communities in the Lusaka district have a significant number of shallow well water points which part of the local community access drinking water from. The objectives of the research were to detect the presence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase producing Escherichia coli in shallow well water in the Lusaka district. A total of 145 shallow well water samples from the community were collected between September 2014 and March 2015 and later submitted for laboratory analysis to the University of Zambia, School of Veterinary Medicine, Paraclinical Department Microbiology Laboratory. Results: Overall 9/77 (11.6%, 95% CI; 6.8 – 34.5%) of the total samples analyzed indicated that extended-spectrum beta-lactamase producers were present in water samples. 13.6% (95% CI; 8 – 24.3%) of the total samples analyzed for antibiotic disk sensitivity test indicated that extended-spectrum beta-lactamase producing Escherichia coli isolates had conferred resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics. Conclusions: The study has revealed the presence of ESBL-producing E. coli isolates in shallow well water and could be one of the potential reservoirs for the antimicrobial resistant genes. The results obtained require an urgent need for concerned stakeholders and government wings to immediately bury all the shallow wells in the peri-urban communities and provide them with safe drinking water.