Water For Various Purposes Research Articles

Küre Dağları Milli Parkı Su Kaynaklarının Rekreasyonel Amaçlı Kullanımı

Water is a basic need in order to survive all living beings. The functional use of water through the ages of living space formatted directed, has a significant influence on environmental design. In addition to the use of water for various purposes has refreshing climatic features, to create a living suitable environment for all living things and has the visual aesthetics features, to become an indispensable element in the landscape has provided. Despite the abundance of recreational activities, humans are mostly enjoyed water-based recreational activities. Water-based recreation is no doubt that the increase of needs. Naturally, the water surface provides great advantages in terms of recreation. Water in recreational areas, both inland and coastal water-based activities is an important element. For example, streams, lakes, ponds and dams’ coast, walking, cycling, water sports, picnics, etc. for recreational activities are indispensable elements of life. Core zone and buffer zone of Kure Mountains National Park is a rich area in underground and surface water resources. Canyons, waterfalls, sinkholes and water resources increase the recreational use potential of the area and these unique natural resources in national park make a difference compared to other areas. In this study, recreation potential of water resources in the Kure Mountains National Park was determined in accordance with suitability assessment, in this context national park was evaluated according to the land capability classes, view, vegetation, slope, current land use, recreational infrastructure, water resources, topography and the proximity to the road factors and suitability map was produced. Suggestions for active and passive recreational activities can be done in the appropriate spaces for recreation have been developed.

Uji kualitas air minum isi ulang disekitar kampus uin Raden Fatah Palembang

Humans need water for various purposes, such as bathing, cooking and most importantly for everydayconsumption. Along with today's technological advances and accompanied by increasingly busy human activitythen people tend to choose a more practical way with relatively low cost to meet the needs of drinking water byusing drinking water contents ulang.Permenkes No. 429 in 2010, assessed quality drinking water frommicrobiological parameters are not the discovery of total coliform bacteria in 10 ml of sample. According tosome previous studies, many refill drinking water depot that produce water does not comply with themicrobiological peryaratan. The purpose of this study is to conduct a microbiological water qualitypresentation based on the value of MPN Coliform, by identifying the presence of Escherichia coli in drinkingwater produced depot refill drinking water around the UIN Raden Fatah Palembang. The study was conductedin June 2016 in the Laboratory of the Faculty of Mathematics and Teaching Tarbiyah Raden Fatah StateIslamic University in Palembang. This study uses qualitative descriptive method by comparing the laboratoryresults with standard tables Most Probable Number (MPN), which consists of a test estimation, confirmationtest, and test the amplifier. Get their research results in the bacteria Escherichia coli and Coliform. Of the foursamples unfit for consumption because of a fourth consecutive MPN values per 10 ml coliform bacteria are12.4 per 100 ml; 22.7 per 100 ml; 14 per 100 ml; 1100 per 100 ml, and contains the bacteria Escherichia colisequentially 12.4 per 100 ml; 22.7 per 100 ml; 3 per 100 ml; 1100 per 100 ml.

Geochemical influences on the quality of groundwater in eastern part of Semnan Province, Iran

To identify the principal geochemical processes controlling groundwater quality in eastern part of Semnan Province, a total of 257 groundwater samples from wells and springs were collected. Since groundwater is the only source of water for various purposes, preservation of the quality of available groundwater resources in this region is of great importance. The order of abundance of anions was Cl−>SO4 2−>HCO3 −>NO3 −>F−, and for them the average values were 509.41, 404.24, 120.48, 14.51, 0.59 mg/l, respectively. On the other hand, for cations, Na+ and Ca2+ with average values of 442.10 and 135.09 mg/l were the most abundant parameters. Geochemical characteristics based on bivariate diagrams indicated that Na release from silicate weathering is an important process whereas the dissolution of dolomite and the effect of silicate materials on the aquifer were other determinative processes influencing the quality of groundwater in the area. In order to predict the overall quality of groundwater with respect to a calculated water quality index (WQI), support vector machine (SVM) and artificial neural network (ANN) were utilized. The correlation coefficients between the predicted and observed WQI for the training and test data set related to SVM were 0.97 and 0.96, respectively. On the contrary, the results of ANNs with early stopping showed roughly the same performance resulting in correlation coefficients of 0.98 and 0.96 for the training and test data set, respectively. As a whole, the WQI for 8 % of the sampling stations was <50 and for 17 %, the calculated index was <60 which are important concerns.

Assessment of Groundwater Quality Index in and Around Sholinganallur Area, Tamil Nadu

Groundwater is an essential and valuable natural source of water supply all over the world. To meet out the rising demand it is crucial to identify and recognize the fresh water resources and also to find out remedial methods for improvement of water quality. The present study aims in determining the groundwater quality in and around Sholinganallur area, Kancheepuram District. Sholinganallur is a suburban town of Chennai city situated on the southern IT corridor of Chennai in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. The increase in growth of Sholinganallur’s economy, population density and infrastructure developments aggravated the stress on water and land related issues. The areal extent of a study area is 46.25 km2 from Navalur to Karapakkam. The Water Quality Index explains overall quality at certain location and time, based on several physio-chemical parameters. It provides anexcellent representation of overall quality of water for various purposes in the arena of water management. Water samples were collected from ten sampling points and tested for several physiochemical parameters like pH, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Hardness, Alkalinity, Sulphates, Nitrates, Chloride and Fluoride. Further the study uses Arc GIS for mapping the water quality to identify the spatial variation in groundwater quality. From the study, the presence of high TDS occurs in most of the locations and the ground water quality status of the selected area is found to be critical. Further the study identified potential suggestive measures and recommendations.

Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in the Yellow River Basin

The Yellow River is suffered from water shortage. Rapid population increase, unplanned urbanization, intensive industrial. Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) is a promising approach in ensuring sustainable management. It entails management of water for various purposes and not for a single purpose which therefore involves different regions aiming at achieving sustainable water resources management. This paper seeks to evaluate recent efforts to implement in IWRM in the Yellow River basin. The paper concludes that reforms such as public participation at local levels, recognition of water as both an economic and a social good, putting IWRM within the larger context of Integrated Natural Resource Management would improve IWRM in the basin.

A STUDY ON GEOGRAPHICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE KRISHNA WESTERN DELTA USING GIS AND REMOTE SENSING TECHNIQUES

Water is a prime natural resource, basic human need and a precious national asset. Though water is considered as a renewable resource it is not unlimited, and as such, can no longer be taken for granted and has to be treated as a valuable resource. Since water is a critical resource for development of other resources, the assessment of water resources available and demand of water for various purposes is of utmost importance without which it is difficult to prepare any developmental plan. Rainfall is the main source of water which is unevenly distributed spatially and temporally. The ever increasing demand of water due to high industrialization, enormous population growth, agricultural expansion and urbanization has already created serious problems. As water demand increases, issues on water availability and demand become critical. This makes the management of water resources, such as assessing, managing and planning of water resources for sustainable use, a complex task. Remote Sensing with its advantages of spatial, spectral and temporal availability of data covering large and inaccessible areas with in short time has become a very handy tool in assessing, monitoring and conserving land use/ land cover classification around the world. Remote Sensing integrated with Geographical Information System has been efficiently used in generating input parameters of hydrological models. The GIS and RS technology have opened new paths in water resources studies. In the present investigation, an attempt has been made to delineate the Krishna Western Delta In Andhra Pradesh, India for the assessment of spatial distribution of runoff. The GIS layers namely, Topomap, contours and Digital Elevation Model (DEM) were prepared including watershed boundary. The Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the study area was generated in ArcGIS using Contours and Stream layers. The Georeferenced soil map has been clipped to the boundary of the Krishna Western Delta and the areas corresponding to each variety of soil is calculated in ArcGIS.

FILTRUOTO VANDENS, TIEKIAMO VANDENTIEKIO, KOKYBĖS PAGAL CHEMINĘ SUDĖTĮ ĮVERTINIMAS

Vandentiekio vandenį vartotojai naudoja įvairiems tikslams, o vartojant jį kaip geriamąjį vandenį vartotojai sprendžia jo tinkamumą pagal savo skonį. Vartotojai stengiasi pritaikyti vandenį savo reikmėms ir skoniui gerindami jo kokybę. Vienas iš vandens gerinimo būdų yra vandens filtracija. Filtrai dažniausiai skirstomi į mechaninius, vandens minkštinimo, nugeležinimo, mineralizavimo, aktyvuotos anglies bei atvirkštinio osmoso slėgio filtrus. Pagrindinė šių filtrų funkcija – gerinti vandenį ir užtikrinti geriamojo vandens kokybę. Tyrimo tikslas - įvertinti filtruoto vandentiekio vandens kokybę pagal cheminę sudėtį. Tyrimo metu buvo atliktas vandens kokybės tyrimas: nustatytas kalcio ir magnio jonų, sulfatų, chloridų kiekis atsitiktinai pasirinktuose, 5 skirtingų filtrų, 29 filtruoto vandens mėginiuose. Atlikto tyrimo duomenimis, nustatyta, kad didžiausias cheminės sudėties pokytis, mineralinių medžiagų kiekio sumažėjimas, stebimas vandenį nufiltravus atvirkštinio osmosinio slėgio filtru. Mineralizavimo filtras nepapildo kalcio ir magnio jonais, sulfatais bei chloridais iki vandentiekio tiekiamo vandens sudėties. Mechaninis vandens filtras neturi įtakos cheminei vandens sudėčiai. Nugeležinimo filtras mažiau pakeičia cheminę vandens sudėtį nei minkštinimo ar atvirkštinio osmosinio slėgio filtras. Geriamojo vandens kokybė taip pat gali priklausyti nuo vandenvietės bei filtro priežiūros.

Mycological and physico-chemical study of a fish pond in Paniyala in Haridwar district of Uttarakhand

Water is essential to life, but many people do not have access to clean and safe drinking water and many die of waterborne microbial infections. Mycological studies and physico-chemical parameters are an important criterion for evaluating the suitability of water for various purposes. In this study, we tried to assess the fungal species richness and physico-chemical status of fish pond in Paniyala in Haridwar district of Uttarakhand to predict the state of this pond. A total of four species were recorded which include Aspergillus flavus, Candida albicans, Penicillium Spp. and Fusarium Spp. Present study revealed that among fungal species, Aspergillus flavus was reported with higher in number 7.44±3.45 (ml-1x103) and Fusarium Spp.was recorded with minimum number of 5.15±2.06 (ml-1x103). The total species diversity was higher in the month of April (39.80 ml1x103. The water samples were also analyzed for physico-chemical parameters like temperature, pH, conductivity, DO, BOD, Free CO2, calcium and magnesium. Higher value of temperature, pH, BOD, Free CO2 and lower values of dissolved oxygen concentration were recorded and the results revealed deteriorated water quality. The fungal population showed positive significant correlation with physico-chemical parameters like, temperature, pH, biological oxygen demand, calcium and magnesium whereas negatively correlated with conductivity and dissolved oxygen.

Sorbents with biocidal properties for disinfection of water for various purposes

Conventional methods for water disinfection, especially chlorination, have a lot of disadvantages and should be perfected or substituted with safer and more efficient methods. One of the possible solutions to this problem is the application of sorbents with high disinfection efficacy. In this study, the opportunity of producing sorbents with biocidal properties based on non-oxidizing biocides and anion exchange resins (AERs) was investigated. A wide range of different type of AERs were tested for the ability to sorb biocides (dibromonitrilopropionamide (DBNPA) and polyhexamethyleneguanidine (PHMG)) and to exert disinfection activity. Most suitable AERs for production of biocidal sorbents were outlined.

English

A two-year study was carried out from June 2009 to May 2011 to investigate the microbial quality of the Mezam river system in Bamenda and its health impact, given the prevalence of waterborne diseases among the population who use the river water for various purposes, notably domestic and agricultural activities. River, spring and tap water samples were collected monthly and analysed quantitatively for faecal bacteria indicators of pollution and qualitatively for specific pathogens. The study shows that most of the sites were heavily polluted with faecal bacteria (12 to 2822 cfu/100 ml) that consistently exceeded the WHO recommended range for potability. These bacteria often comprised the pathogens Salmonella and Shigella which seemed to be endemic. They all tended to be highest in the dry season and at the onset of the rainy season. The incidence of waterborne diseases showed a seasonal pattern similar to the seasonality of the causative agents in water samples. The most impaired segments were the Ayaba and Mughed tributaries which receive inputs from urban and domestic activities, as well as the Nkimefeu tributary which receives direct waste discharge from the dressing of carcasses at the town slaughter house. The population which is dependent on the river water are thus exposed to health risks which could be reduced by minimizing the discharge of both liquid and solid wastes into water channels. Key words: Faecal bacteria, market gardening, pathogens, river pollution, wastewater.

Persistence ofGiardia,Cryptosporidium,Rotavirus,andAdenovirusin Treated Sewage in São Paulo State, Brazil

Abstract : The persistence of Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Rotavirus, and Adenovirus in samples of raw and treated sewage collected monthly in 2010 at the Biological Wastewater Treatment Plant of Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil, was analyzed. The USEPA Method 1623 was used to detect and quantify Giardia and Cryptosporidium. An enzyme immunoassay was carried out to test Rotavirus and Adenovirus antigen optical density (Rotascreen® and Adenoscreen®). The results show a significant decrease in the concentrations of Giardia, Rotavirus and Adenovirus (P < 0.05) and a trend of decreasing Cryptosporidium densities, without statistical significance. Giardia concentrations ranged from 120 to 2,200 cysts/L in raw sewage and from 0.45 to 3.5 cysts/L in treated sewage. Cryptosporidium concentration ranged from undetectable to 28.9 oocysts/L in raw sewage and undetectable to 1.05 oocysts/L in treated sewage. Rotavirus presented absorbance values that ranged from 1.17 ± 0.81 in raw sewage to 0.46 ± 0.32 in treated sewage. Adenovirus, in turn, presented absorbance values of 0.64 ± 0.20 in raw sewage and of 0.45 ± 0.04 in treated sewage. There was no significant seasonal tendency observed in the distribution of protozoa (oo)cysts and in the viral antigen density in the monthly sewage samples during 2010 (P > 0.05). Even though these pathogenic agents decreased after treatment, the remaining loads observed in treated sewage can reach the watercourses receiving it. Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Rotavirus, and Adenovirus are pathogens with very low infectious doses, representing a public health risk especially for vulnerable groups, such as children living near these watercourses and homeless people using this water for various purposes. Studies addressing the environmental persistence of opportunistic pathogens in watercourses are hugely important in the public health sphere, especially in developing countries, where economic, social, cultural, and environmental factors still persist that are favorable to population's exposure to diarrhea-causing agents.

Determination of characteristics and drinking water quality index in Mzuzu City, Northern Malawi

An assessment of characteristics and chemical water quality index (WQI) of water supplied by the Northern Region water Board (NRWB) in Mzuzu City was carried out in order to ascertain the quality of water for domestic purposes. The WQI offers a single number that expresses overall water quality for a water sample based on several water quality parameters. In this study raw water and 72 tap water samples were collected monthly between March and September, 2011 and analyzed for major ions, pH, total dissolved solids (TDSs), electrical conductivity (EC), turbidity, total hardness (TH), suspended solids (SSs) and alkalinity using standard methods. The quality and accuracy of the chemical data was assessed by checking electrical balances. The calculated electrical balance errors were found to be less than ±10%, which meant the results were reliable. Based on the Sawyer and McCarty TH classification, 100% of the samples were soft waters (TH<150mg/L). Nitrates, which registered medium or average WQ-rating of 69.77 and WQ-rating range of 52.06–86.94, were observed to have significantly affected the overall water quality index of the treated water since the rest of the parameters registered good–excellent WQ-ratings (average WQ-rating: 80.21–97.87). The pH, which is used to determine suitability of water for various purposes, ranged between 6.40 and 6.90 and registered a good water quality rating (WQ rating range: 72.73–87.02) for both raw and treated water. Raw water registered an overall medium water quality rating of 62.67%. Overall, 91.67% of the samples registered a good water quality rating (WQI range: 80.28–88.80%) and 8.33% registered a very good water quality rating (WQI=90.07%). The results suggested substantial water treatment by the NRWB since the treated water is protected with some negligible degree of impairment that rarely departs from desirable levels of domestic water quality. It is recommended that the WQI should be adopted as a tool to monitor and establish trends in quality of water supplied by the NRWB since it is a composite index that turns complex water quality data into an aggregate rating that reflects the combined influence on the overall water quality as opposed to the univariate water quality assessment approaches such as the Malawi Bureau of Standards.

Decision of threshold values for extraction of turbidity for inland wetland using IRS P6 LISS III data

Wetland is a kind of natural resource with fast dynamic changes. Around 50% of the earth’s wetlands are estimated to have already disappeared worldwide over the last hundred years through conversion to industrial, agricultural, and residential developments. It is important for wetland protection and management to accurately map the wetland distribution by remote sensing and GIS. A study of the water turbidity and water quality of the wetland is essential to assess the fitness of the water for various purposes—irrigation, drinking, other domestic use, and industry. In the present study, an attempt has been made to know the inland wetland of Salem taluk of Salem district and to monitor changes in turbidity conditions for post-monsoon and pre-monsoon seasons. With the IRS P6 LISS III satellite image, indices images were generated for the extraction of water spread boundary. An automatic determination method of the threshold was examined to produce masks for the extraction of turbidity, and a turbidity map was generated which classifies turbidity into high, medium, and low. From the analysis, it has been observed that the inland wetlands of post-monsoon constitute 489 ha of the study area, of which 21.3% is subjected to high turbidity. Pre-monsoon spread constitutes 362.81 ha, of which 15.7% is subjected to high turbidity in pre-monsoon. Thus, this study highlights the usefulness of remotely sensed data for wetland mapping, seasonal monitoring, and characterization. The result indicates that turbidity conditions are moderate and low in pre-monsoon and moderate in post-monsoon seasons.

Study the quality of wells water of Mosul city and its environs and its validity for drinking and irrigation

The present study investigation the ground water sited in Mosul city in Nineveh government and some others in its suburb. The aim of the study is to determining the type of chemical and physical characteristics in addition to the validity of this type of ground water for various purposes. For this purpes16 wells were chosen for four months samples from each was takes at rainy season this period at April 2008 to July 2008 Out of these 6was chosen to study the number of bacteria. The result reveals that water of most wells were classified as hard to very hard and also its water are not suitable for drinking and Industrial uses. According to classification system for irrigations water. All wells of sample were classified as C3S1 and C4S1, sodality percentage in all wells were less than 70%.

Water Resources Management and Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in Cameroon

Cameroon is blessed with abundant water resources. Rapid population increase, unplanned urbanisation, intensive industrial and socio-economic development have led to poor and unsustainable management of these resources. Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) is a promising approach in ensuring sustainable management of Cameroon’s water resources. It entails management of water for various purposes and not for a single purpose which therefore involves different stake holders aiming at achieving sustainable water resources management. This paper seeks to evaluate recent efforts to implement in IWRM in Cameroon by examining the institutional framework for IWRM in Cameroon, conditions for the implementation of IWRM and proposes reforms for improving IWRM in Cameroon. The paper concludes that reforms such as public participation at local council levels, recognition of water as both an economic and a social good, putting IWRM within the larger context of Integrated Natural Resource Management (INRM) and the exploitation of mathematical models within hydrological basins will improve IWRM in Cameroon.

Free-Radical-Induced Oxidative and Reductive Degradation of Fibrate Pharmaceuticals: Kinetic Studies and Degradation Mechanisms

The presence of pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) in aquatic systems is an emerging environmental issue and poses a potential threat to ecosystems and human health. Unfortunately, current water treatment techniques do not efficiently remove all of the PhACs, which results in the occurrence of such compounds in surface and ground waters. Advanced oxidation/reduction processes (AO/RPs) which utilize free radical reactions to directly degrade chemical contaminants are alternatives to traditional water treatment methods. This study reports the absolute bimolecular reaction rate constants for three pharmaceutical compounds (fibrates), clofibric acid, bezafibrate, and gemfibrozil, with the hydroxyl radical (*OH) and hydrated electron (e(-)(aq)). The bimolecular reaction rate constants for *OH were (6.98 +/- 0.12) x 10(9), (8.00 +/- 0.22) x 10(9), and (10.0 +/- 0.6) x 10(9), and for e(-)(aq) were (6.59 +/- 0.43) x 10(8), (112 +/- 3) x 10(8), and (6.26 +/- 0.58) x 10(8), for clofibric acid, bezafibrate, and gemfibrozil, respectively. Transient spectra were obtained for the intermediate radicals produced by the hydroxyl radical reactions. In addition, preliminary degradation mechanisms and major products were elucidated using (137)Cs gamma-irradiation and LC-MS. These data are required for evaluating the potential use of AO/RPs for the destruction of these compounds in treating water for various purposes.

EVALUATION OF DRAINAGE WATER QUALITY TO BE REUSED FOR IRRIGATION PURPOSES IN RIYADH AREA, SAUDI ARABIA

Recent urban development tremendously increased the use of water in domestic, industrial and landscape irrigation which increased manifold production of wastewater of marginal quality. Saudi Arabia is an arid country having limited and non-renewable groundwater resources coupled with un-predictable and scanty rainfall. The growing demand of good quality water for various purposes has forced the water planners to find an alternate sources of water to lower burden on freshwater groundwater resources. In Riyadh city, about one million cubic meter of wastewater is flowing daily in Hanifah. To explore the quality of that water and its effect, a study was carried out along the main drainage channel known as Wadi Hanifah Stream often called as man–made-river to examine its quality including chemical composition, its predictive effects on soils and management alternatives for re-use for landscape irrigation in and around Riyadh city. The wastewater channel is composed of agricultural drainage water, sewage water, seepage losses from irrigated fields, leakage from water supply systems, runoff from over irrigation and waste effluent from Wastewater Treatment Plant Riyadh. Water samples from 31 locations along Hanifah stream were collected for quality evaluation for its reuse in landscape irrigation. The SAR and adj.RNa of wastewater ranged from 4.06-7.66 and 4.75-10.75, respectively. The B concentration was above the permissible limit of 1.0 mg L-1 for crop irrigation. The predicted soil salinity values from hypothetical leaching fractions showed that the soil salinity falls in the category of moderate to highly saline soils where cultivation of moderate to high salt tolerant crops is possible provided 15-20 % excess water above crop water requirements is applied as leaching requirement to maintain soil salinity within acceptable limits. Careful analysis, improved irrigation systems and irrigation management practices are key factors for reusing drainage water.

Seasonal variations in physico-chemical characteristics of River Yamuna in Haryana and its ecological best-designated use.

Various physico-chemical characteristics of the River Yamuna flowing in Haryana through Delhi were studied in the summer (April 1998) and winter (Jan.-Feb. 1999). Ecological parameters like dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, nitrate (NO3-), sulfate (SO4(2-)), and phosphate (PO4(3-)), were analyzed and compared with standard permissible limits to assess the best-designated use of the river water for various purposes. The river in Delhi upstream was of better quality whereas the Delhi downstream stretch was polluted as indicated by very low DO and high total dissolved solids (TDS), electric conductivity (EC), total hardness, Na+, K+, Cl-, F- and SO4(2-). The differences in various parameters were statistically significant (p < 0.01) when compared for the Delhi upstream and downstream stretches of the river, particularly in summer. DO and TDS were found to be two important parameters, which showed strong correlation with several other parameters and hence can serve as good indices of river water quality. The river tended to recover from the pollution stress after flowing through a distance of about 80 km downstream of Delhi.

Continuous monitoring of dissolved gas concentrations in groundwater using a quadrupole mass spectrometer

An apparatus has been developed for fully automated, continuous measurement of the concentration of selected gases in groundwater using a quadrupole mass spectrometer. The apparatus has several advantages over conventional methods: (1) since a gas-permeable microporous film is attached to the head of a sampling tube, gases dissolved in groundwater are separated from water by putting the sampling tube into water; (2) by continuously introducing gases separated from water into an on line mass spectrometric system, we have successfully made isotopic measurements such as 40Ar/ 36Ar in groundwater on a continuous basis; and (3) very short intervals of measurement, less than several minutes, are attained by switching the electric voltage of the mass spectrometer discontinuously from peak to peak of arbitrarily chosen gas species. Some experiments are described to evaluate the basic performance of the apparatus such as the reproducibility in repeated measurements, dependence on the total amount and chemical composition of gases, and the response time to a sudden change of dissolved gas contents. An example is presented of observation of distilled water, which demonstrates that the new apparatus is sufficient for continuous monitoring of selected dissolved gases in water for various purposes.

Water testing for surveyors

Summary —An account of some of the standards required of water for various purposes, notably the use of stock, and a simple test for “grains of salt per gallon”. The paper is written especially for surveyors from the point of view of practical use rather than chemical theory.