Water Contact Activities Research Articles

Survey of Schistosoma haematobium and Environmental Factors in Donga Local Government Area, Taraba State, Nigeria

Schistosoma haematobium infection is known to be endemic especially among residents along Rivers, This study was conducted to establish the preval_ence of urinary schistosomiasis in relation to some epidemiological factors among elementary pupils in Donga Local Government Area. Urine filtration technique using polycarbonate membrane filters was employed to check the presence of Schistosoma haematobium eggs in urine and questionnaires were administered. Overall preval_ence of 8.94% (21) was recorded out of the 235 urine examined. Chi square analysis showed insignificant association of the infection with the various schools (χ²= 6.192, P = 0.185). Similarly, ANOVA revealed no significant difference in the mean egg intensity (27.29 eggs/10ml of urine) among the schools (p = 0.293). Males were more infected 13.33%(16) than females 4.50%(5) with a significant difference (P=0.020). However, there was no statistical significant difference in their mean egg intensities (30.3 eggs/10ml of urine in male and 17.6 eggs/10ml of urine in female) (p = 0.27). The age-related preval_ence was higher 11.82% (13) in 10-15 years children while children aged 16-20 had the least preval_ence 0.01% (1). Chi square showed statistical significant association between infection and age (χ²=12.964, P=0.002). But there was a statistical insignificant difference between their mean egg intensities; 10-15, 4-9 and 16-20 (31.08, 23.4, 5 eggs/10ml of urine respectively) with p=0.462. Children who fish had the highest preval_ence 16.67% and children that do not partake in any of these activities had no case of infection 0%(64). Chi square revealed a statistical significant association between participant's water contact activities and infection (χ² =11.21; p = 0.024). However, ANOVA showed statistical insignificant difference in the mean egg intensity among these activities (p = 0.486). This findings indicates that urinary schistosomiasis has low endemicity in this area which could be due to the fact that It was concluded that the overall low preval_ence could be attributed to improved environmental hygiene among others.

Prevalence of Schistosomiasis and Associated Risks Factors among Patients with Urinary Tract Infection Attending Specialist Hospital Bauchi

Background: Schistosomiasis, a parasitic disease caused by Schistosoma species, remains a significant public health concern in many developing regions, including Bauchi, Nigeria. This study aims to assess the prevalence of schistosomiasis and identify associated risk factors among patients with urinary tract infections (UTIs) attending the Specialist Hospital Bauchi. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted involving patients presenting with UTI symptoms at the Specialist Hospital Bauchi. Urine samples were collected and analyzed for Schistosoma haematobium eggs using microscopy. Demographic and clinical data were obtained through structured questionnaires to identify potential risk factors for schistosomiasis, including water contact activities, sanitation practices, and socio-economic status. Results: Out of the total patients screened, a significant proportion tested positive for Schistosoma haematobium, indicating a notable prevalence of schistosomiasis among UTI patients. Statistical analysis revealed several risk factors strongly associated with schistosomiasis, including frequent contact with contaminated water sources, poor sanitation facilities, and lower socio-economic status. Conclusion: The study highlights a high prevalence of schistosomiasis among UTI patients in Bauchi, underscoring the need for integrated disease management and prevention strategies. Public health interventions focusing on improving water sanitation, health education, and targeted treatment programs are essential to reduce the burden of schistosomiasis in this region. These findings can stimulate further research and policy development aimed at controlling this neglected tropical disease.

Prevalence of Urinary Schistosomiasis Infection among Women in Yala Local Government Area, Cross River State, Nigeria

Urinary schistosomiasis is endemic in Nigeria and continues to be a threat to public health especially for inhabitants of rural areas. Women in villages may be ignorant of the cause of the disease. The main source of water in these areas in most parts of Nigeria is the streams with resultant spread of schistosomiasis. This study was conducted to investigate the prevalence of schistosomiasis infection among women in Yala L.G.A in Cross River State, Nigeria. Macroscopy, urinalysis, and microscopy were used to examine the 650 urine samples collected from two villages (Ugaga and Okpoma) to determine presence of Schistosoma haematobium eggs. Questionnaires administered to women provided information on socio-demographic data and water-contact activities. Out of the 650 urine specimens examined in the two villages, 202 (31.08%) were infected with the highest prevalence found among the 11-22 years age group, and the least (12.80%) among the 59-70 years age group. Statistical analysis at significance level (P<0.05) revealed that there is a significant relationship between occupation and infection rate of schistosomiasis in the area. Schistosomiasis is of serious public health importance. Hence, the need for an acceptable preventive and control intervention to be carried out in this study area to reduce this problem.

Co-infection of urogenital schistosomiasis and malaria and its association with anaemia and malnutrition amongst schoolchildren in Dutse, Nigeria

Schistosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease. Sub-Saharan Africa accounts for 93% of the world’s 207 million schistosomiasis cases. Urogenital schistosomiasis and malaria are both public health problems in Nigeria, where they are endemic. We determined the co-prevalence of urogenital schistosomiasis and malaria in schoolchildren and assessed its implication on anaemia and malnutrition. This cross-sectional study was conducted amongst primary schoolchildren in the Warwade, Saya Saya and Jigawar Daha villages of Nigeria. Urine samples were collected to detect Schistosoma haematobium eggs, and finger prick blood was used for haemoglobin concentration and malaria diagnosis. Nutritional status was assessed using anthropometric measurements and a pre-tested questionnaire. The overall prevalence and density of S. haematobium were 27.7% and 9 eggs/10 mL, respectively, with significant differences between villages and sexes. The prevalence of malaria and infection density was 10.4% and 330 mps/μL, respectively. Co-infection prevalence was 3.3%. Anaemia prevalence was 66%, with significant variation across villages and between sexes. Prevalence of stunting, underweight, and wasting was 41.7%, 46%, and 29.7%, respectively. Mean haemoglobin concentrations in Plasmodium and children co-infected with urogenital schistosomiasis were significantly lower than those who were negative for the infection. No significant association was observed between malnutrition and single or co-infection of urogenital schistosomiasis and malaria. After adjusting for variables associated with anaemia, village of residence remained a significant predictor of anaemia. Water contact activities, such as fishing, swimming, and irrigation, emerged as independent risk factors of S. haematobium infection. Significance: Urogenital schistosomiasis and malaria infections are prevalent in communities around Warwade dam in Dutse, Nigeria, and cause anaemia. Continuous monitoring, proper treatment and regular intervention is desirable in the communities.

Haematobium infection and the predisposing factors in Fufore LGA of Adamawa State

Background & Objectives: Schistosomiasis, is a major health problem in the rural areas of developing countries where there is high water contact activities with fresh water bodies, poor hygienic practices and no portal drinking water. It ranks the second after Malaria with socio-economic and public health importance in the tropics and subtropical regions. To provide information on the prevalence and predisposing factors of Haematobium infection among School-aged children in relation to their age and gender in Fufore LGA. Methods: A cross sectional study was carried out to determine the prevalence of urinary Schistosomiasis and the predisposing factors in Fofure LGA of Adamawa State between October and November 2022 where five Schools were sampled for the study. 300 Students between the ages 0-15 years were randomly selected and grouped into three age groups (0-5, 6-10 and 11-15) respectively. Urine samples were obtained from the students and transferred to New Boshang Hospital Medical Laboratory for parasitological examination. Each were also issued a structured questionnaire so as to obtain their demographic characteristics and to determine the possible risk factors associated with this infection in the case of study. Results: Out of the total 300 Students examined, 113(37.7%) were positive for Schistosoma haematobium and the Males (43.9%) had significantly higher prevalence (P < 0.05) than the Females (30.2%). In respect to age, the age group 11-15 (51.5%) were significantly more infected (P < 0.05) than the younger age groups 0-5 (8.2%) and 6-10 (36.6%) examined. Haematobium infection was observed to be higher in children whose parents were irrigation farmers/ fishermen 173(57.7%) than those whose parents are not. Students whose household monthly income is below N30, 000 were more infected. Those that used well 97(32.3) and streams 123(41.0%) as source of drinking water showed high prevalence than those who use borehole. Students whose water contact activities were for farming/ fishing 201(67.7%) were significantly more infected with haematobium infection (P < 0.05) than those without ant water contact activity. Interpretation and Conclusion: From the result of the study, it’s clear that poverty, ignorance, socio-cultural practice, poor hygienic practices, inadequate toiletry facility are some of the predisposing factors associated with this infection in the study area. Intervention by the relevant authorities are needed to curtail the transmission of this infection. These interventions includes; massive health education, provision of portable drinking water and provision of good sanitary/ toilet facility.

Associations of water contact frequency, duration, and activities with schistosome infection risk: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Schistosomiasis is a water-borne parasitic disease which affects over 230 million people globally. The relationship between contact with open freshwater bodies and the likelihood of schistosome infection remains poorly quantified despite its importance for understanding transmission and parametrising transmission models. We conducted a systematic review to estimate the average effect of water contact duration, frequency, and activities on schistosome infection likelihood. We searched Embase, MEDLINE (including PubMed), Global Health, Global Index Medicus, Web of Science, and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials from inception until May 13, 2022. Observational and interventional studies reporting odds ratios (OR), hazard ratios (HR), or sufficient information to reconstruct effect sizes on individual-level associations between water contact and infection with any Schistosoma species were eligible for inclusion. Random-effects meta-analysis with inverse variance weighting was used to calculate pooled ORs and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). We screened 1,411 studies and included 101 studies which represented 192,691 participants across Africa, Asia, and South America. Included studies mostly reported on water contact activities (69%; 70/101) and having any water contact (33%; 33/101). Ninety-six percent of studies (97/101) used surveys to measure exposure. A meta-analysis of 33 studies showed that individuals with water contact were 3.14 times more likely to be infected (OR 3.14; 95% CI: 2.08-4.75) when compared to individuals with no water contact. Subgroup analyses showed that the positive association of water contact with infection was significantly weaker in children compared to studies which included adults and children (OR 1.67; 95% CI: 1.04-2.69 vs. OR 4.24; 95% CI: 2.59-6.97). An association of water contact with infection was only found in communities with ≥10% schistosome prevalence. Overall heterogeneity was substantial (I2 = 93%) and remained high across all subgroups, except in direct observation studies (I2 range = 44%-98%). We did not find that occupational water contact such as fishing and agriculture (OR 2.57; 95% CI: 1.89-3.51) conferred a significantly higher risk of schistosome infection compared to recreational water contact (OR 2.13; 95% CI: 1.75-2.60) or domestic water contact (OR 1.91; 95% CI: 1.47-2.48). Higher duration or frequency of water contact did not significantly modify infection likelihood. Study quality across analyses was largely moderate or poor. Any current water contact was robustly associated with schistosome infection status, and this relationship held across adults and children, and schistosomiasis-endemic areas with prevalence greater than 10%. Substantial gaps remain in published studies for understanding interactions of water contact with age and gender, and the influence of these interactions for infection likelihood. As such, more empirical studies are needed to accurately parametrise exposure in transmission models. Our results imply the need for population-wide treatment and prevention strategies in endemic settings as exposure within these communities was not confined to currently prioritised high-risk groups such as fishing populations.

Recreational water exposures and illness outcomes at a freshwater beach in Toronto, Canada: A prospective cohort pilot study.

Swimming and other recreational water activities in surface waters are popular in Canada during the summer. However, these activities can also increase the risk of recreational water illness. While routine monitoring of beach water quality is conducted by local authorities each summer, little research is available in Canada about beach exposures and illness risks. We conducted a pilot of a prospective cohort study at a popular beach in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, in 2022 to determine characteristics of beachgoers, common water and sand exposures, the incidence of recreational water illness, and the feasibility for a larger, national cohort study. We enrolled beachgoers on-site and surveyed about their exposures at the beach and conducted a follow-up survey 7 days following their beach visit to ascertain acute gastrointestinal, respiratory, skin, ear, and eye illness outcomes. We descriptively tabulated and summarized the collected data. We enrolled 649 households, consisting of 831 beachgoers. Water contact activities were reported by 56% of beachgoers, with swimming being the most common activity (44% of participants). Similarly, 56% of beachgoers reported digging in the sand or burying themselves in the sand. Children (≤14 years) and teenagers (15-19 years) were most likely to report engaging in water contact activities and swallowing water, while children were most likely to report sand contact activities and getting sand in their mouth. Boys and men were more likely than women and girls to report swallowing water (15.2% vs. 9.4%). Water and sand exposures also differed by household education level and participant ethno-racial identity. E. coli levels in beach water were consistently low (median = 20 CFU/100 mL, range = 10-58). The incidence of illness outcomes was very low (0.3-2.8%) among the 287 participants that completed the follow-up survey. The identified beach exposure patterns can inform future risk assessments and communication strategies. Excellent water quality was observed at the studied beach, likely contributing to the low incidence of illnesses. A larger, national cohort study is needed in Canada to examine risks of illness at beaches at higher risk of fecal contamination.

Urinary schistosomiasis: risk factors and symptoms among school adolescents in Kaduna State, Nigeria

Improper waste disposal, unsafe water and indiscriminate water-contact activities are major factors enhancing continuous spread of schistosomiasis in Nigeria. Many water bodies are prone to contamination with human wastes directly discharged into them or due to surface runoff, and are infested with parasites. Open defecation and discharge of household sewage into water channels is still practiced. Children conduct activities in these water bodies, thereby exposing themselves to infections with schistomes among other pathogens. Urine samples (10 mL each) were collected from 600 consented school adolescents across six Local Government Areas of Kaduna State, Nigeria. Information on their water-contact activities were obtained by means of questionnaires. Urine sediment was examined for Schistosoma haematobium eggs by microscopy. No infection was recorded in adolescents who had awareness about the disease. Those who engaged in swimming (9.2 %, OR=2.2) and fishing (10.3 %, OR=2.1) were significantly more infected than those who did not (P≤0.05). Adolescents who worked on irrigated farms (9.0 %, OR=1.4), washed clothes in rivers (9.0 %, OR=1.6), or fetch water from rivers for domestic purpose (10.0 %) were more infected than others who did not engage in those activities. Therefore, swimming and fishing are important factors enhancing the spread of schistosomiasis among school adolescents in Kaduna State. Irrigation farming, washing of clothes in rivers or fetching water from rivers exposed the adolescents to schistosome infections. Widespread awareness campaigns, provision safe water to communities, and standard water-based recreational centers are paramount

Urogenital Schistosomiasis Transmission and Human Water Contact Activities in Owena Reservoir/Dam, Ondo East Local Government Area, Ondo State, Nigeria

<i>Background</i>: This study on urogenital schistosomiasis transmission and the roles played by human water contact activities was carried out in selected three communities viz Owena, Kajola and Baiken, bordering Owena Reservoir/Dam in Ondo East Local Government Area, Ondo State, Nigeria for a period of twenty four months. <i>Objective</i>: To ascertain the effects of human water contact activities on urogenital schistosomiasis transmission. <i>Materials and Methods</i>: Each site was observed for water contact activities once every month for twenty-four months. Observation was made at each site in February (dry season), May (early rainy season), August (rainy season) and November (early dry season). During this period, records were taken about individuals entering and leaving the water. Various types of human water contact activities were grouped on the basis of general purpose of contact. With regards to degree of body exposure and mean duration of contacts; using canoe, fetching water, washing household utensils, sorting fish and washing exposed limbs, all involved exposure of only parts of the lower limbs (foot and leg) and or the upper limbs (hand and forearm) for a brief period of time grouped as partial contact activities. Water contact activities consist of washing clothes and fish nets, processing food products (such as cassava and palm oil) may involve exposure of most parts of the lower and/or the upper limbs for a longer period. Swimming and bathing commonly involve total exposure for a very long time and were designated as complete contacts. <i>Results</i>: General pattern of human water contact activities in the study revealed 34,686 (61.6%) domestic, 15,897 (28.2%) economic, 5,732 (10.2%) recreational and 15 (0.03%) religious activities. Frequency of these activities varied significantly (p<0.05) among stations and seasons but comparable from one year to the other. School children (5-19 years age group) spent more time on exposure than adults who spent more time on partial and limited exposure. As a result, the exposure index was significantly (p<0.001) age dependent and followed the same pattern as duration of contact. Site containing most infected <i>Bulinus globosus </i>snails was site 4 (KAJ 1) at Kajola community with snail infection rate of 9.2% and the same site 4 (KAJ 1) had the highest relative index of exposure (15,063.80) as well as level of total duration (14,215) of contact in minutes. <i>Conclusion</i>: Site 4 (KAJ 1) at Kajola community was the transmission site in Owena Reservoir/Dam, Ondo East Local Government Area, Ondo State, Nigeria.

Attitude, Knowledge, Perception, Behavioural, Cultural and Religious Practices Influencing Transmission of Urogenital Schistosomiasis in Owena, Kajola and Baiken Communities Bordering Owena Reservoir/Dam, Ondo East Local Government Area, Ondo State, Nigeria

Background: Human urogenital schistosomiasis remains an important public health problem in Nigeria, especially in three communities, Owena, Kajola and Baiken bordering Owena Reservoir/Dam, Ondo East Local Government Area, Ondo State, Nigeria. Unfortunately, scientific-based facts about attitude, knowledge, perception, behavioural, cultural and religious practices influencing the transmission of urogenital schistosomiasis are grossly scanty and without which sustainable control strategies cannot be planned. The aim of the study was to identify the roles played by the aforementioned variables in the transmission of the disease with a view to fashioning out sustainable control strategies of the disease. Materials and Methods: A structured questionnaire was used to collect basic information on personal biodata, perception, health history, etc from the subjects. Data obtained were analyzed using Chi-square test, Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and correlation analysis. Results: Summary of significant associations between knowledge and socio-demographic characteristics of the three communities combined showed the following: gender status (p&lt;0.000), distribution of latrine facilities in the communities (p&lt;0.000), ignorance of how urogenital schistosomiasis is transmitted (p&lt;0.002), self-medication urogenital schistosomiasis treatment (p&lt;0.000), frequency of visits to the reservoir (p&lt;0.001) (see Table I). Further results of this study revealed that participants’ perception, behavioural, cultural, religious practices were not significantly associated with the danger of urogenital schistosomiasis (p&lt;0.110), snails seen around reservoir (p&lt;0.259), reservoir ever visited before (p&lt;0.24), household having toilet facilities (p&lt;0.32), blood passed in urine (p&lt;0.86), treatment ever received for urogenital schistosomiasis infection (p&lt;0.86) (see Table III). Conclusion: The overall findings of this twenty-four-month (August 2013 – July 2015) study showed that people orientations such as attitude, knowledge, perception, behavioural, cultural, religious practices about the causal factors, transmission cycles, negative impacts of urogenital schistosomiasis are grossly scanty and these could pose a threat to sound intervention strategies of the control of the disease. Control strategies should involve mass sensitization focused on health education, and on transmission to emphasise the role commonly played by water contact activities. Frequency of occurrence of snails’ host and urination habits should be looked into, as well. Enlightening teachers, parents to control the water contact behaviour of their wards especially the age group 5-15 years which accounts for 52% of total index of exposure. Adequate provision of modern alternative sources of water supply (e.g. pipe-borne water) with a view to reducing the population index of exposure, should be encouraged.

The efficacy of soap against schistosome cercariae: A systematic review.

BackgroundSchistosomiasis is a parasitic disease that is endemic in 78 countries and affects almost 240 million people worldwide. It has been acknowledged that an integrated approach that goes beyond drug treatment is needed to achieve control and eventual elimination of the disease. Improving hygiene has been encouraged by World Health Organisation, and one aspect of good hygiene is using soap during water-contact activities, such as bathing and doing laundry. This hygiene practice might directly reduce the skin exposure to cercariae at transmission sites. A systematic review was carried out to investigate the efficacy of soap against schistosome cercariae and to identify the knowledge gaps surrounding this topic.MethodologySix online databases were searched between 5th and 8th July of 2021. Records returned from these databases were screened to remove duplicates, and the remaining records were classified by reading titles, abstracts, and full texts to identify the included studies. The results were categorised into two groups based on two different protective mechanisms of soap (namely, damage to cercariae and protection of skin).ConclusionsLimited research has been conducted on the efficacy of soap against schistosome cercariae and only 11 studies met the criteria to be included in this review. The review demonstrates that soap has the potential of protecting people against schistosome cercariae and there are two protective aspects: (1) soap affects cercariae adversely; (2) soap on the skin prevents cercariae from penetrating the skin, developing into adult worms and producing eggs. Both aspects of protection were influenced by many factors, but the differences in the reported experimental conditions, such as the cercarial endpoint measurement used and the cercaria numbers used per water sample, lead to low comparability between the previous studies. This review indicates that more evidence is needed to inform hygiene advice for people living in schistosomiasis endemic areas.

Prevalence and Associated Risk Factors of Urinary Schistosomiasis among Primary School Pupils in the Jidawa and Zobiya Communities of Jigawa State, Nigeria.

Background:Urogenital schistosomiasis (UgS) is a parasitic disease caused by Schistosoma haematobium and can lead to chronic ill-health. Nigeria is endemic for schistosomiasis, but epidemiology of UgS has not been studied in most states. This study was conceived with the aim to contribute towards an accurate national picture of UgS in Nigeria. The prevalence of UgS and the associated risk factors were for the first time investigated among primary school pupils in Jidawa and Zobiya communities of the Dutse Local Government Area (LGAs) of Jigawa State, Nigeria.Method:Focus group discussions with teachers and parents were conducted. After obtaining written consent from parents, questionnaires were administered to pupils to obtain socio-demographic data and information on water contact activities. Urine samples (279) were collected and processed by the urine filtration technique to evaluate haematuria and the presence of S. haematobium eggs.Results:Prevalences of 65.7% (90/137) and 69.0% (98/142) were recorded in the Jidawa and Zobiya communities, respectively. In both communities, there was a significant association between gender and UgS: 63.3% of the infected pupils were males as compared to 36.7% females (χ2 = 5.42, p = 0.020). Grade 5 students had a significantly higher prevalence (χ2 = 17.919, p = 0.001) (80.0%) compared to those in grades 2, 3, 4, and 6 (63.8%, 66.7%, 61.5%, and 64.6%, respectively). Water contact activities showed that pupils involved in fishing, irrigation, and swimming were at greater risk of becoming infected in Jidawa and Zobiya, with odds ratios (risk factors) of 5.4 (0.994–28.862) and 4.1 (1.709–9.862), respectively (p = 0.05).Conclusion:Both the Jidawa and Zobiya communities of the Dutse LGAs of Jigawa State are hyperendemic for UgS. In collaboration with the State Ministry of Health, mass administration of praziquantel was carried out in the Jidawa and Zobiya communities after this study.

Prevalence and factors associated with persistent transmission of Schistosoma haematobium among primary school children after five rounds of mass drug administration using praziquantel: A cross sectional study in Mkuranga district, Tanzania

Despite a human schistosomiasis control programme through praziquantel mass drug administration (MDA) between 2011 and 2015,there was still persistent transmission among primary schoolchildren (PSC) in Mkuranga district, Tanzania. Our cross-sectional study was conducted among 396 PSC who provided urine for diagnosis of Schistosoma haematobium infection. Observations were conducted to determine PSC water contact activities. Logistic regression was used to test association between dependent and independent variables. We found MDA uptake among PSC as 72.5%, and the prevalence of Schistosoma haematobium infection 5.8%. The risk of infection increased among PSC engaged in fetching water and adjusted odds ratio (AOR) for swimming, bathing, fishing, crossing ponds and paddy fields were 0.123, 0.166, 0.232, 0.202 and 0.093 respectively. Thus we conclude that multiple water contact activities and low participation in MDA is responsible for persistent Schistosoma transmission.

Schistosomiasis and Water Related Activities: A Major Road Block to Disease Control among School-Aged Children in Endemic Communities along Oyan Dam in Ogun State, Nigeria

Majority of sub-Saharan countries have restricted access to potable water supply, leaving them with the option of utilizing natural water bodies for their domestic chores which are polluted with advance stages of the schistosome parasite. This study was investigated to determine the water contacts usage among school pupil in Abuleoriowo and AbuleTitun along Oyan Dam in Ogun State, Nigeria. A structured questionnaire was employed in collecting data of school pupil of 0-19 and their house hold. Result from the study indicates that schistosomiasis is endemic in the study communities with a high risk to source of 35 (46.7) % and 38 (50.7) % in Abule-Titin and Abule-Oriowo respectively. There was no significant difference between male and female, the result shows that 40(53.3%) females and 37(49.3%) male were exposed to water contact activities. Children are being vulnerable to Schistosomiasis as consequences of frequent water contact which affect the schistosomiasis control in school minor in the study areas. The communities living in Schistosome endemic area should be educated on important role of improved water, sanitation, and hygiene as pivotal to sustained intervention for the mitigation of schistosomiasis, whereas attitudes, and practices of water contact among school children should be discourage through community sensitization in order to mitigate their passive vulnerability to infective water.

Persistence of E. coli O157:H7 in urban recreational waters from Spring and Autumn: a comparison analysis.

People might get infected by pathogens found in urban recreational waters during water-contact activities, such as swimming, boating, bathing, and yachting. However, the persistence of pathogenic bacteria in those waters was not well documented. In this study, persistence of E. coli O157:H7 (EcO157) in 48 water samples (24 Spring samples and 24 Autumn samples) from the 3 urban recreational waters was investigated. Multivariate statistical analysis was performed to correlate survival data with water physicochemical properties and bacterial communities. Our data showed that EcO157 survived longer in Spring samples than in Autumn samples regardless of the lakes. Results revealed that recreational water physicochemicalproperties and bacterial community in Spring samples were different from those in Autumn samples. Mantel and Partial Mantel tests, as well as co-occurrence network analysis illustrated that EC salinity, TOC, and bacterial community were correlated with survival time (ttd) (p < 0.05). Variation partition analysis (VPA) indicated that bacterial community, EC, TOC, and TN explained about 64.81% of overall ttd variation in Spring samples, and bacterial community, EC, pH, and TP accounted for about 56.59% of overall ttd variation in Autumn samples. Structural equation model (SEM) illustrated that EC indirectly positively affected ttd through bacterial community. The correlation between bacterial community and ttd was negative in Spring samples and positive in Autumn samples. TN appeared a direct positive effect on ttd in Spring samples. TP displayed a direct negative effect on ttd in Autumn samples. Our results concluded that there was seasonal variation in environmental factors that directly or indirectly affected the survival of EcO157 in urban recreational waters.

Prevalence of urogenital schistosomiasis among reproductive women and children in Yenagoa Metropolis, Bayelsa State, Nigeria

Schistosomiasis is one of the most important neglected tropical diseases in terms of morbidity and mortality and it is endemic in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. This study was conducted between March and November, 2021 to determine the prevalence of urogenital schistosomiasis among reproductive women in three (3) communities (Biseni, Okordia and Zarama) in Yenagoa metropolis, Bayelsa State, Nigeria. A total of two hundred (200; Biseni 70, Okordia 70 Zarama 60) Mid Stream Urine (MSU) samples collected were immediately taken to Medical Microbiology Laboratory unit, Niger Delta University and analyzed using Filtration and Sedimentation technique. Snails collected were identified by the shape of their outer shell. Basic statistics method and ANOVA was used to analyze the data. Out of the 200 urine samples examined, 50(25.0%) were tested positive for Schistosoma haematobium. The age- related infection showed that the age-group 19-30 years had relatively the highest (18, 36.0%) rate of infection, followed by 12-18 years 16 (32.0%), age-group (31-40)(6, 12%) and age group (41-50) years had (10, 20.0%) infection rate while the most infected community was Zarama with percentage prevalence of 40.0, followed by Okordia 36.0 and the least was Biseni 24.0. Observation showed that farmers had the highest prevalence of 30.6%, house wives 29.7%, Traders 24.5%, Students 22.9% and the least was Civil servants 14.7%. Bulinus globosus was the only snail intermediate host identified in both ponds and streams. Human water contact activities observed around the water bodies were recreational activities (washing, bathing, and fishing) and harvesting of freshwater snails. Variance (ANOVA) of the age- specific prevalence of urogenital schistosomiasis in the three communities showed no significant difference among the study population at P&lt;0.05 and also across the infected population in the three communities. In conclusion, this study has revealed the existence of urogenital schistosomiasis in these three (3) study communities in Bayelsa state, hence health education and provision of safe water should be stepped up as a control measure of the infection in the area.

Assessing Potential Intermediate Host Snails of Urogenital Schistosomiasis, Human Water Contact Behavior and Water Physico-chemical Characteristics in Alwero Dam Reservoir, Ethiopia.

Introduction:Urogenital schistosomiasis is one of public health problems in lowland areas of Ethiopia. The disease is caused by Schistosoma haematobium. Freshwater Bulinus snails are intermediate hosts for the parasite transmission. The aim of the study was to assess intermediate host snails of urogenital schistosomiasis, human water contact behavior and physico-chemical characteristics of Alwero Dam reservoir.Methods:Bulinus snails were sampled from 12 sites of Alwero Dam. Bulinus snails were collected, identified and examined for natural schistosome infections. A total of 206 people were interviewed to determine human water contact behavior. The water temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, total dissolved solid, salinity and conductivity of the water were determined.Results:Of 1125 Bulinus snails collected, 72 (6.4%) were infected with echinostome cercariae but none of them were infected with schistosome cercariae. The abundance of Bulinus species did not show significant variation across seasons (P = .61). Occurrence of Bulinus species was significantly higher in stony substratum than sandy substratum (P = .01). Of the total 206 participants, 119 (57.8%) had water contact activities like washing clothes, bathing or swimming. Majority of respondents (70.0%) reported that they visited the dam reservoir once or twice a week, while 16.5% and 13.6% reported that they visited the dam 3 to 5 times a week and daily, respectively. Moreover, 72.3% of the respondents had reported they had history of urogenital schistosomiasis infection. The mean water temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, total dissolved solid, electric conductivity, and salinity of the dam water was 28.6°C, 7.07, 5.75 mg/l, 90.0 ppm, 124.8 µS/cm, and 50.0 ppm, respectively.Conclusion:At Alwero Dam, Bulinus snails were highly abundant and the human water contact activities were frequent. Therefore, the community awareness creation should be made to reduce water contact with snail infested water to prevent risk of urogenital schistosomiasis infection.

Gender-related differences in prevalence, intensity and associated risk factors of Schistosoma infections in Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

BackgroundSchistosomiasis remains a global-health problem with over 90% of its burden concentrated in Africa. Field studies reflect the complex ways in which socio-cultural and socio-economic variables, affect the distribution of Schistosoma infections across different populations. This review set out to systematically investigate and quantify the differences in Schistosoma infection burdens between males and females in Africa for two of the most prevalent Schistosoma species—Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma haematobium.MethodologyWe searched (from inception to 11th March 2020) Embase, MEDLINE, PubMed, and Web of Science for relevant studies on schistosomiasis. We included studies that report S. mansoni and/or S. haematobium prevalence and/or intensity data distributed between males and females. We conducted meta-analyses on the male to female (M:F) prevalence of infection ratios. Subgroup analyses were performed according to study baseline prevalence, sample size and the lower and upper age limit of study participants. We also present a descriptive analysis of differential risk and intensity of infection across males and females. Evidence for differences in the prevalence of schistosomiasis infection between males and females is presented, stratified by Schistosoma species.ResultWe identified 128 relevant studies, with over 200,000 participants across 23 countries. Of all the reported differences in the prevalence of infection between males and females, only 41% and 34% were statistically significant for S. mansoni and S. haematobium, respectively. Similar proportions of studies (27% and 34% for for S. haematobium and S. mansoni, respectively) of the reported differences in intensity of infection between males and females were statistically significant. The meta-analyses summarized a higher prevalence of infection in males; pooled random-effects weighted M:F prevalence of infection ratios were 1.20 (95% CI 1.11–1.29) for S. haematobium and 1.15 (95% CI 1.08–1.22) for S. mansoni. However, females are underrespresented in some of the studies. Additionally, there was significant heterogeneity across studies (Higgins I2 statistic (p-values < 0.001, I2values>95%)). Results of the subgroup analysis showed that the baseline prevalence influenced the M:F prevalence ratios for S. haematobium and S. mansoni, with higher M:F prevalence of infection ratios in settings with a lower baseline prevalence of infection. Across the studies, we identified four major risk factors associated with infection rates: occupational and recreational water contact, knowledge, socio-economic factors and demographic factors. The effect of these risk factors on the burden of infection in males and females varied across studies.ConclusionsWe find evidence of differences in prevalence of infection between males and females which may reflect differences in gender norms and water contact activities, suggesting that policy changes at the regional level may help ameliorate gender-related disparities in schistosomiasis infection burden. Collecting, robustly analysing, and reporting, sex-disaggregated epidemiological data, is currently lacking, but would be highly informative for planning effective treatment programmes and establishing those most at risk of schistosomiasis infections.

Urinary Schistosomiasis and Primary Evidence of Female Genital Schistosomiasis among Pupils in Nsugbe Community, Anambra State, Nigeria

Urinary schistosomiasis is considered a major public health parasitic disease in African communities. Prior to this study, Nsugbe community was not considered endemic for the disease and as such was not involved in Praziquantel-Preventive Chemotherapy (PC). Longitudinal study of 281 consented pupils aged 5-16 years was carried out with aim of determining the status of urinary schistosomiasis. Urinalysis laboratory test strip, urine filtration technique and syndromic diagnosis were used for the confirmation of the presence of haematuria in urine samples, identification of Schistosoma haematobium ova and the confirmation of female genital schistosomiasis (FGS), respectively. Risk factors for urinary schistosomiasis infection were determined using pre-tested structured questionnaire. Data were analyzed using Minitab 17 software and intensity of infection categorized following World Health Organization (WHO) recommendations. Of the 281 pupils, 117 (42%) were males and 164 (58%) were females with mean age of 9 years. At baseline, an overall prevalence of 0.4% (1/281) which was of light intensity was established. At follow-up, an overall prevalence of 2.1% (6/281) which was of both light (16.7%) and heavy infection (83.3%) was established. The result of the clinical examination showed eggs of S. haematobium in and around the vaginal area indicating FGS of a female pupil aged 12 years. This was treated. Identified risk factors for S. haematobium infection in the community include water-contact activities, ignorance, source of water supply among others. The study revealed the need for an all inclusive mass administration of Praziquantel-PC in the study community for effective control and possible elimination.

Comparison of self-reported and observed water contact measures in Schistosoma japonicum-endemic villages in Leyte, The Philippines.

We compared individuals' self-reported water contact from a questionnaire to direct observation of water contact. Questionnaires that accurately capture water contact are necessary to risk-stratify individuals and communities at high risk for schistosomiasis. Individuals (N=677) ages 7-30y were included from three Schistosoma japonicum-endemic villages in Leyte, The Philippines. Each individual was observed for 12d over the course of the 18-month study and the questionnaire was administered six times. A questionnaire index was derived that captured the number of self-reported contacts with water bodies for any purpose. An exposure index was created based on the sum of contacts that was weighted by the percentage of body surface area (BSA) exposed and exposure duration. Of 16 water contact activities, only bathing and washing clothes exhibited a significant, positive correlation between self-reported contacts and the observed exposure index related to those contacts. We found that only the reported frequencies of bathing and washing clothes were significantly related to an individual's overall observed exposure index, while use of all reported contacts was not related to the observed exposure. This study further supports the need for questionnaires to be augmented by some measure of how much BSA is exposed and/or time is spent in the water on average for a specific activity.