Water Contact Activities Research Articles

Water Contact Activities and Prevalence of Schistosomiasis Infection among School-age Children in Communities along an Irrigation Scheme in Rural Northern Ghana

Of the various trematodes that infect humans, schistosomes remain among the most prevalent, and the various forms of schistosomiasis still pose significant public health problems. The prevalence of schistosomiasis infection among in-school and not-in-school children resident in communities along the Tono irrigation canals in northern Ghana was determined. Stool and urine samples from random representative samples were parasitologically examined using the Kato-Katz and 10 ml urine filtration methods respectively. A total of 920 children (mean age: 11.0 yrs; range: 6-15 yrs; STD Dev: 4.6 yrs), 573 (62.3%) males and 347 (37.7%) females with 473 in-school and 447 not-in-school participated in the study. The prevalence of Schistosoma haematobium infection was 33.2% (305/920) whilst that of S. mansoni was 19.8% (95% CI: 17.3-22.5; 182/920). The overall prevalence of infection (S. haematobium plus S. mansoni) was 47.7% (439/920). Many more males (51.7%; 95% CI: 47.5-55.8) than females (41.2%; 95% CI: 36.0-46.6) were infected. Forty-six (5.0%, 46/920) children were infected with both S. haematobium and S. mansoni. There was no difference in the prevalence of infection (S. haematobium plus S. mansoni) among children in-school (48.4%; 95% CI: 43.8-53.0) and those not-in-school (46.5%; 95% CI: 41.8-51.3). There was a statistically significant difference in prevalence of infection among communities (P=0.0002); with the lowest level of infection in residents of Korania (29.9%; CI: 20.0- 41.4) and the highest among those resident in Kajelo (64.9%; CI: 51.1-77.1), with significant differences in levels of water contact activities (χ2 =6.69; P=0.04). The highest intensity of S. mansoni infection (115.6 epg) was in Bonia where the highest prevalence of blood stained stools was collected (5.5%). Overall, 2.8% (26/920; 95% CI: 1.9-4.2) of stool samples were blood stained, whilst 10% (92/920; 95% CI: 8.2-12.2) of children had haematuria. S. haematobium ova were detected in 98.9% (91/92) of blood stained urine samples. Children infected by S. mansoni were more likely to have blood stained stool (χ2 =32.7; P<0.0001). The prevalence of schistosomiasis infection in the irrigation project site is high, adding praziquantel to albendazole and ivermectin for distribution during the annual mass drug administration for filariasis and onchocerciasis control will be an effective way of reaching all at risk groups in the Kassena-Nankana district for the control of schistosomiasis.

Environmental epidemiology of intestinal schistosomiasis and genetic diversity of Schistosoma mansoni infections in snails at Bugoigo village, Lake Albert

Intestinal schistosomiasis continues to be hyper-endemic in the fishing community of Bugoigo located on the eastern shore of Lake Albert, Uganda. Our study aimed to identify the factors that determine the local distribution and abundance of Biomphalaria, as well as infection(s) with Schistosoma mansoni inclusive of their genetic diversity. In addition, a DNA barcoding approach was taken to genotype schistosome cercariae, exploring the micro-epidemiology of infections. Over a 3-week period in June–July 2010, several hundred Biomphalaria spp. were collected, together with environmental information, from 10 selected sites, representive of both putative wave-exposed (n=5) and wave-sheltered shorelines (n=5). A Mann–Whitney U-test and a generalized linear model were used to assess associations with snail abundance and parasite infections across the shoreline. Levels of local wave action were recorded over the 19-day period using digital accelerometers. The general absence of wave action on the sheltered shoreline likely helped to raise and focalize other environmental parameters, such as water conductivity by lack of mixing, that foster transmission of intestinal schistosomiasis. Over the study period, a total of 10 infected snails were encountered and a selection of schistosome cercariae from each infected snail was harvested for analysis by DNA barcoding. In total, 91 DNA barcodes were generated with 15 unique barcode types identified. Of these, 4 barcodes had been found previously in Lake Albert and (or) Victoria, the remaining 11 were newly encountered here and described. The distribution of DNA barcodes across infected snails and sampled locations revealed a complicated spatial sub-structuring. By shedding new light on the fine-scale patterning of infections, DNA barcoding has revealed a rather heterogeneous landscape of cercariae, likely inclusive of multi-miracidial infections within the snail, which will in turn interplay with human water contact activities to shape the genetic diversity of worm populations within infected people.

Pre- and post-intervention perceptions and water contact behaviour related to schistosomiasis in north-western Tanzania

Schistosomiasis is a widespread disease of public health importance in Tanzania requiring concerted efforts to control it. A study on schistosomiasis-related perceptions and water contact behaviour was undertaken in one community population of Hamuyebe village in Ukerewe district, north-western Tanzania, where intestinal schistosomiasis is endemic before and 2 years after implementation of a participatory hygiene and sanitation transformation (PHAST) intervention. Data were obtained from baseline and post-intervention knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) questionnaire surveys conducted between 2008 and 2010 among 157 individuals aged 15 years and above. The surveys were further complemented by structured observations of human–water contact activities. We found significant increases in respondents’ knowledge of the cause, transmission, symptoms and health consequences of schistosomiasis after the intervention. The reported treatment seeking and preventive practices were congruous with the actual (observed) behaviour. Frequency, duration and timing of water contacts also decreased significantly after the intervention and took into consideration the fact that those activities which need larger body surface exposure, for a long period and at an appropriate time when cercarial densities are high (i.e. around noon) are important for the transmission of schistosomiasis. We conclude that PHAST intervention has succeeded in effecting positive changes in peoples’ perceptions and attitudes towards water. As a result, knowledge obtained from the said intervention was translated into actions to prevent schistosomiasis. Studies on knowledge, attitudes and practices coupled with structured observations should be part of the integrated approach for the control of schistosomiasis.

Water Quality of Mantayupan River in Barili, Cebu, Philippines

The Mantayupan River is among the most important sources of water in Cebu, Philippines. This study was conducted to evaluate the physical, chemical, and microbiological characteristics of this river ecosystem and monitor the uses of its water. Results showed that Mantayupan river’s overall water quality index (WQI) indicated only a “medium or average water quality” at the head water all the way down the river channel during dry season. In the rainy season, the river’s WQI scaled a “good water quality” at the head water and falls but declined to “medium or average water quality” at its downstream. Results indicated that bathing or any recreational water contact activity is safe only during the wet season at the head water up to the Mantayupan falls but not after and until the downstream. However, the denser population of coliforms along the river indicates that Mantayupan falls situated closer to the head water than the downstream is not suitable for bathing and any recreational water contact activity during both seasons.

Modelling of hydrogeochemical potential of three lake catchments in Polesie region (Eastern Poland)

AbstractTotal dissolved solids (TDS) in lake and catchment water is a result of geological structure, as well as duration of rock and water contact and human activity. In this paper, a potential dissolved solids (PtDS) in three Łęczna–Włodawa Lake catchments was determined using extraction and computer software (GIS and AquaChem). Human pressure on water quality was estimated as a difference of the TDS and a catchment hydrogeochemical potential (TPtDS, total potential dissolved solids). TPtDS coefficient included hydrogeological features of the aquifer, soil cover impact on infiltrated water quality, and sediments susceptibility to denudation. The main advantage of the model is a possibility of its employment for every catchment or other areas (e.g. administrative) on both microscale and mesoscale. The highest TPtDS occurred in the catchment, favoured with underground supply, which was located in the vicinity of the Cretaceous mesoregional unit (Chełm Hills). The lowest value was observed in the catchment built with organogenic sediments and coarse material. A seasonal constancy of TPtDS values proved a stability of the lake‐catchment systems under study. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Prevalence of Urinary Schistosomiasis among School Aged Children in Wushishi Local Government Area of Niger State, Nigeria

An investigation was conducted to determine the prevalence of urinary Schistosomiasis in two localities namely,Wushishi and Zungeru of Wushishi local government of Niger State. Urine samples were collected from 100 school children of each of the two localities and investigated for eggs of Shistosoma haematobium using standard filtration techniques. The water contact activities of the inhabitants whose samples were collected were also obtained, using questionnaire method. Result obtained showed that 80 (40.0%) inhabitants were infected with a mean egg count. The infection rate was found to be higher among males (47.5%) than the females (28.75%) but the mean eggs count tend to be higher among the females (7.5 eggs/10ml of urine) than males (5.8 eggs/ml of urine). The results also showed that children aged 10 – 15 yrs old had the highest infection rate of 48.75% with 16.0 eggs/10ml of urine. Key words: prevalence, urinary schistosomiasis

Profile of an epidemiological study of urinary schistosomiasis in two local government areas of Benue state, Nigeria

Background : Urinary schistosomiasis is endemic in Nigeria and continues to pose public health challenges especially in inhabitants of rural areas. Aim : This study was conducted in an attempt to establish the prevalence of urinary schistosomiasis in relation to epidemiological factors among children in Buruku and Katsina-Ala local government areas, Benue, Nigeria. Materials and Methods : Urine filtration technique using polycarbonate membrane filters was employed to determine presence of Schistosoma haematobium eggs in urine. Questionnaires were also administered to children to collect information on socio-demographic data and water-contact activities. Results : An overall prevalence of 41.5% was observed among the 1,124 children examined. Secondary school children recorded higher prevalence rate than primary school children and pre-school children. A significant difference in prevalence was observed between the three categories of children examined. Males had statistically higher prevalence rate than females. No significant difference was observed between the different age groups, and across the months. Children whose parents have no formal education and whose parents have primary education recorded the highest prevalence with statistical significance. Children whose parents’ occupation is farming had the highest prevalence which was statistically significant compared to those whose parents were non-farmers. Children who played/bathed and collected fresh water snails had higher risks of infection with urinary schistosomiasis in the area. Conclusion : The study draws attention to the health hazards posed by urinary schistosomiasis among children in in the studied area. The urgent need for a decisive control ntervention to stem this problem cannot be overemphasized. Keywords : Prevalence, schistosomiasis, Benue, Nigeria

PREVALENCE AND FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH URINARY SCHISTOSOMIASIS AMONG INFANTS AND PRESCHOOL-AGED CHILDREN IN SETTLEMENTS AROUND OYAN RESERVOIR IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA

The need for more information on the risk factors for schistosomiasis among infants and preschool-aged children as become important for the development of health education programme since this age group is currently excluded in preventive chemotherapy programmes. Therefore, the prevalence and intensity of, and risk factors for, infant and preschool-aged children infection with Schistosoma haematobium were explored in two endemic settlements around Oyan Reservior in Ogun State, Nigeria. Mothers and caregivers’ knowledge of the disease, water contact activities of their preschooler, age at first exposure and control measures were recorded using a structured questionnaire. Of the 86 preschooler screened from the two settlements 46 (53.5%) were infected, with an overall geometric mean intensity of 0.36 eggs/10 ml urine. The prevalence of egg-patent S. haematobium infection was 27.8% in Ibaro and 72.0% in Imala-Odo respectively. There were significant differences in prevalence (P=0.0005) and intensity (P=0.0006) of infection between the two communities, however, these did not increase significantly with age in both communities. Interviews revealed that preschoolers were exposed to infected reservoir water as early as after birth, while older preschoolers frequently visited water bodies on their own to play, bath and wash cloth. There was significant reduction in prevalence of schistosomiasis among preschool-aged children in Ibaro community compared to Imala-Odo community; this could be attributed to awareness about the disease, and its mode of transmission. Intensive health education still remains the alternative for reducing transmission in preschoolers in the absence of standardized treatment dosage for them.Â

Urinary schistosomiasis, perception and treatment-seeking behaviour in Sankwala, Cross River State, south-eastern Nigeria

Studies on perception, water contact activities, treatment seeking behaviours and intensity of urinary schistosomiasis in Sankwala were conducted at four endemic sites namely Central Primary School, Community Secondary School, Godbey Secondary Commercial School and Ipale Community. A total of 620 subjects were tested. The prevalence of infection was 37.90%. Intensity of infection was measured by the filtration technique while proteinuria and haematuria were measured using Combi . 9 test strip. The degree of awareness of infection among subject was tested using well-structured questionnaire. The degree of awareness stood at 94.75% though none of the respondents knew the causative agent of urinary schistosomiasis. The number of respondents that accepted involvement in one water-related activity or the other was 77.18%. The interrelationship between infection and water contact, fresh water snails and the presence of blood in urine is understood by the subjects to an appreciable degree. The treatment seeking behaviour of the respondents is also presented. Control measures based on the socio-ecological settings of Sankwala is presented while emphasis on further research in this hitherto undiscovered endemic focus is strongly suggested.

The contribution of water contact behavior to the high Schistosoma mansoni Infection rates observed in the Senegal River Basin

BackgroundSchistosomiasis is one of the major parasitic diseases in the world in terms of people infected and those at risk. Infection occurs through contact with water contaminated with larval forms of the parasite, which are released by freshwater snails and then penetrate the skin of people. Schistosomiasis infection and human water contact are thus essentially linked, and more knowledge about their relationship will help us to develop appropriate control measures. So far, only few studies have related water contact patterns to infection levels.MethodsWe have conducted detailed direct water contact observations in a village in Northern Senegal during the first years of a massive Schistosoma mansoni outbreak to determine the role of human water contact in the extent of the epidemic.We quantified water contact activities in terms of frequency and duration, and described how these vary with age and sex. Moreover, we assessed the relationship between water contact- and infection intensity patterns to further elucidate the contribution of exposure to the transmission of schistosomiasis.ResultsThis resulted in over 120,000 recorded water contacts for 1651 subjects over 175 observation days. Bathing was the main activity, followed by household activities. Frequency and duration of water contact depended on age and sex rather than season. Water contacts peaked in adolescents, women spent almost twice as much time in the water as men, and water contacts were more intense in the afternoon than in the morning, with sex-specific intensity peaks. The average number of water contacts per person per day in this population was 0.42; the average time spent in the water per person per day was 4.3 minutes.ConclusionsThe observed patterns of water contact behavior are not unusual and have been described before in various other settings in sub-Saharan Africa. Moreover, water contact levels were not exceptionally high and thus cannot explain the extremely high S. mansoni infection intensities as observed in Northern Senegal. Comparison with fecal egg counts in the respective age and sex groups further revealed that water contact levels did not unambiguously correspond with infection levels, indicating that factors other than exposure also play a role in determining intensity of infection.

Perceptions and assessment of risk factors in Schistosoma haematobium infection in Buruku and Katsina-Ala Local Government Areas of Benue State-Nigeria

Schistosomiasis is one of the neglected diseases in tropical Africa that continues to plague inhabitants of sub-urban and rural areas where there are little or no safe water outlets. This study investigated urinary schistosomiasis infection in relation to knowledge, attitudes and practices of people in Buruku and Katsina-Ala Local Government Areas of Benue State, Nigeria. Using standard parasitological method (Filtration technique) to examine the urine, 335 (44.66%) were infected with Schistosoma haematobium eggs out of the 750 urine samples examined from school children and communities. Questionnaires were administered to each participant to collect information on socio-demographic data, knowledge on the causes of urinary schistosomiasis and risk factors in Schistosoma haematobium infection. Children of farmers recorded the peak of infection with 159 (24.37%). Inhabitants of the area mostly linked the disease to other causes like drinking dirty water 195(29.63%) among whose 115 (17.47%) were infected, playing in water 118 (17.93%) among whose 67 (10.18%) were infected, eating unripe fruits 72 (10.98%) among whose 30 (4.00%) were infected. Subjects’ knowledge about the role that fresh water snails play in transmission was low 38 (5.77%). 116 (25.22%) were recorded not having any idea of the cause of the disease and 70 (9.33%) were found infected. Activities like swimming, bathing/playing in water, washing and collection of edible snails from stream, ponds or river significantly correlated with the prevalence of Schistosoma haematobium infection (P < 0.01) and could be identified as risk factors in the area. There is an urgent need for the launching of a schistosomiasis control programme and development of human resources and materials for health education to decrease the frequency of water contact activities.

Continued high endemicity of urinary schistosomiasis in Ogun State, Nigeria

Four hundred and fifty respondents were examined for urinary schistosomiasis in Ibaro-Oyan and Abule Titun communities that depend on the Oyan Dam for their livelihood. Using laboratory examination of urine samples and structured questionnaire, prevalence was 86.0% Ibaro-Oyan and 88.0% Abule-Titun. Males were more infected (89% Ibaro-Oyan and 96% Abule Titun) than females (82% and 74% respectively). Statistical analysis showed no significant difference in infection rates between sexes (p>0.005). Sixty-seven per cent males and 53% females in Ibaro-Oyan and 64% males and 53% females in Abule Titun had observable haematuria in their urine. Most respondents (97.4% and 99.6%) from Ibaro-Oyan and Abule Titun rely heavily on the Oyan Dam for source of water and also aware that infection is due to their water contact activities with the dam. The continued high endemicity could be reduced if the Ogun State government incorporates the political will to eliminate the scourge.

Risk factors &lt;i&gt;Schistosoma hematobium&lt;/i&gt; in Ajelanwa area of Oyo state, Nigeria

Infection with Schistosoma hematobium has been on the rise in developing countries with studies done in Nigeria alluding to the risk factors for infection. However, these risks factors have often not been properly described in the context in which they occurred. This study aims to describe the situation in which these risk factors occur in a rural pcpulation. A cross sectional study of children aged 5 to 24 years was conducted in a rural transborder community in Nigeria using a systematic random sampling method. Five hundred and thirty one participants were interviewed and examined for anaemia, cleanliness and skin infections, while a mid-day urine sample was taken for microscopic identification of S haematobium. A large proportion of respondents were either dirty 271 (51.0%) or unkempt - uncut nails, unkempt hair and tattered clothes 105 (19.8%) with 11 (2.1 %) having scabies. Clinically detectable anaemia was present in 153 (28.8%) of the subjects. The prevalence rate of S haematobium was 14% in the study population with those within the ages 15 and 19 having the highest prevalence figure of 16.5%. Males were also more infected 48 (15.1%) than females 26 (12.2%). The risk factors for infection were water activities like swimming (OR 2.97,95% CI 1.55 - 5.77) and bathing (OR 3.22, 95% CI 1.53 - 6.79). In addition water visitation in the afternoon was also a risk factor for infection (OR 4.21,95% CI 1.85 - 9.93). It is advocated that water contact activities be reduced in areas at increased risk of infection with S haematobium. Nigerian Medical Practitioner Vol. 54 (1) 2008: pp. 3-7

Socio-Economic And Water Contact Studies In &lt;i&gt;Schstosomiasis haematobium&lt;/i&gt; Infested Area Of Anambra State, Nigeria

A survey of urinary schistosomiass in Agulu, Anambra state, Nigeria was carried out using primary school pupils. The relationship between family socio-economic status of the pupils and infection with Schstosomiasis haematobium and between water contact activities of the people with S. heamatobium was investigated. Seven primary schools out of fifteen in the town had pupils with Schistosoma haematobium infection. Children whose parents were farmers and teachers had infection rates of 38.9% and 14.4% respectively. A greater number of children (7,000) (74.2%) than adults (2,438) (25.8%)perform different activities in different parts of the lake which bring them in contact with the water during the period of study. The highest number of people (3,324) (35.2%) were engaged in swimming while the lowest number 480 (5.1%) were found fishing. Keywords: Water contact, Schstosomiasis haematobium, Socio-economic Animal Research International Vol. 1 (3) 2004 pp. 200-202

Micro-epidemiology of urinary schistosomiasis in Zanzibar: Local risk factors associated with distribution of infections among schoolchildren and relevance for control

Although it is well recognised that both behavioural and environmental factors play a role in determining small-scale heterogeneities in schistosomiasis transmission, empirical evidence of their relative importance is often limited. A study was conducted around Chaani, a village in northern Unguja (Zanzibar) where urinary schistosomiasis is endemic, in order to shed light upon the micro-epidemiology of Schistosoma haematobium and patterns of infection within schoolchildren and the intermediate host snail Bulinus globosus, that may help in adjusting recently implemented control programmes. Malacological surveys were conducted to identify transmission foci and questionnaires were devised to assess recalled water-contact patterns of 150 schoolchildren who had been screened for S. haematobium infection, finding an overall prevalence of 50.6%. Boys were more frequently and more heavily infected than girls and, accordingly, mean exposure scores were significantly higher for boys than girls. Univariate statistics revealed significant associations between infection and specific water-contact activities, including washing/bathing (odds ratio [OR] = 3.01, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.36–6.67) and playing (OR = 4.03, 95% CI = 1.51–10.70) in streams/ponds. In multivariate analysis, however, the strongest predictor of infection was proximity of the child's home to a site harbouring S. haematobium-infected B. globosus ( P < 0.001), suggesting that geography may be a better proxy for exposure than self-reported water contact. Surveillance programmes may therefore wish to prioritise evaluation of environmental risk to pinpoint transmission at the micro-geographical level, although water-contact questionnaires are also recommended as a complementary tool to rapidly identify the behaviour patterns of children at most risk of infection in the rural communities of Zanzibar. Such knowledge is a prerequisite for focusing and improving schistosomiasis control at the local level.

Index of potential contamination for urinary schistosomiasis in five settlements near River Kubanni in Zaria

Urinary schistosomiasis caused by Schistosoma hasmatobium is a disease associated with water contact activities. Urine samples of 1,067 subjects living beside river Kubanni in Zaria (Nigeria) were screened in order to determine the prevalence of infection, intensity of infection among those infected was 77.7 eggs/10ml of urine. Prevalence in males (19.4%) was significantly higher than in females (3.11%; p 0.2).It was only in males that prevalence exhibited a variation with age (p The Nigerian Journal of Parasitology Vol. 24 2003: 95-101

Concurrent comparison of three water contact measurement tools in four endemic villages of the Philippines. The schistosomiasis transmission ecology in the Philippines project (STEP)

Schistosomiasis japonica is a chronic helminthic infection contracted through contact with water infested with Schistosoma japonicum. The infection is associated with severe disease and is an important public health concern in Philippines. To estimate the agreement in the frequency of water contact between bimonthly interviews, self-administered diaries and observations. A total of 286 individuals were followed over either a 4 or a 6 months period. Agreement between direct observation and both the bimonthly and diary methods were estimated. The agreement between the observation and the bimonthly interview was 71.8% when days without any water contacts were considered, but decreased to 23.3% when only days with at least some water contact were considered. The agreement between the observation and the diary was 78.7% when days without any water contacts were considered and 40.8% when only days with some water contacts were considered. Agreement about the degree of water contact is poor between the different measurement tools. This has important implications for future research, since a high degree of measurement error can severely bias any results from studies involving water contact.

Evaluating Cryptosporidium and Giardia concentrations in combined sewer overflow

Since the first identified Cryptosporidium outbreaks occurred in the 1980s and the massive 1993 Milwaukee, WI outbreak affected more than 400,000 people, the concern over the public health risks linked to protozoan pathogens Cryptosporidium and Giardia has grown. Cryptosporidium and Giardia, found in streams, rivers, groundwater, and soil, form hardy, disinfection-resistant oocysts and cysts. Both organisms are recognized causative agents of gastrointestinal illnesses linked to the consumption of contaminated surface or groundwater. This study, the first in a planned series to estimate the urban contribution to the total Cryptosporidium and Giardia receiving-water loads, focused on combined sewer overflow (CSO). CSOs are discharges of mixed untreated sewage and stormwater released directly into receiving waters during rainfall. This engineered relief is necessary to accommodate hydraulic strain when the combined rain and sanitary flows exceed the system capacity. Limited comprehensive data are available assessing the CSO discharge contribution as a source of these two pathogens. Works by States et al. and Gibson et al. each found Cryptosporidium and much greater Giardia concentrations in CSOs draining parts of Pittsburgh, PA. This project estimated the relative detection frequency and concentration of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in CSO. Analytical results were obtained using a modification of Method 1623, originally developed for much cleaner environmental samples. These data are useful for drinking water treatment plants located downstream of CSOs. It is also significant in determining the potential concentrations of parasites at treatment plant intakes and for assessing health risks for water contact and fishing activities. Commonly monitored indicator organisms (total coliform, fecal coliform, E. coli, Enterococcus, and fecal streptococcus), endospores, and selected physical and chemical parameters were analyzed to further describe the samples. CSO from urban areas was not found to be a significant contributor of Cryptosporidium, however, it was found to be a Giardia source.

Recreational Water Quality Control in Mississippi, USA: Bacteriological Assessment in the Pearl River and Ross Barnett Reservoir

We assessed the bacteriological water quality in the Pearl River and Ross Barnett reservoir, a major source of public raw water for the city of Jackson, Mississippi, USA and an important site for recreational activities for local residents and visitors. Infectious diseases caused by pathogenic bacteria are the most common and widespread health risks associated with such water contact activities as bathing, canoeing, and swimming in recreational waters. Water samples collected twice monthly from April 2004 to April 2005 from five different sites of the Pearl river/Ross Barnett reservoir were tested for heterotrophic bacteria, total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and enterococci using membrane filtration technique. Physicochemical parameters (temperature, pH, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, conductivity) were also analyzed using standard methods. The respective mean concentrations of bacteria in water samples were 8.9 x 10(4) +/- 7.4 x 10(4) colony forming units (CFU) 100 mL(-1), 3.0 x 10(3) +/- 4.1 x 10(3) CFU 100 mL(-1), 2.3 x 10(2) +/- 5.4 x 10(2) CFU 100 mL(-1), and 2.3 x 10(2) +/- 4.8 x 10(2) CFU 100 mL(-1) for heterotrophic bacteria, total coliforms, enterococci, and fecal coliforms. The mean values of the physical and chemical parameters were at acceptable levels. Bacterial densities, however, significantly exceeded federal/state guidelines, raising public health concerns. Hence, control strategies should be developed and implemented to prevent further bacterial contamination of Pearl River-Ross Barnett reservoir water resource system.

Combined methods for the study of water contact behavior in a rural schistosomiasis-endemic area in Brazil

A new combined methodology consisting of direct observation and two types of interviews (internal and external interviews) was evaluated for use in exposure risk assessment in schistosomiasis. Specific objectives were to determine its usefulness in achieving equitable coverage of gendered exposure risk and its efficiency in identifying water contact behavior in a rural area in Brazil with different settlement patterns, land use and domestic water supplies. Of the 2476 water contacts recorded, 1223 (49.4%) were identified by direct observation, 946 (38.2%) by internal interviews and 307 (12.4%) by external interviews. Significantly longer mean durations of contacts were recorded for females and greater mean percentage of body surface exposed for males ( P < 0.01), reflecting differences in gendered water contact activities. Direct observation identified slightly more male contacts, external interviews significantly more male contacts ( P < 0.006), and internal interviews moderately more female contacts. The three methods recorded mean numbers of contacts and mean TBM (total body minutes) per person, declining with age. Significant differences were found between the three methods in regard to frequency and/or intensity of washing clothes, fetching water, washing utensils, washing multiple parts of the body, and bathing. The three methods also recorded differentially frequencies and exposure intensities in the three study communities, among different age groups, by gender and for individual study members. These activity-, locality-, age/gender- and person-specific patterns reflect the relative efficiency and complementarity of the three methods in settlements with different land use, access to streams and water supplies.