Water Conservation Systems Research Articles

Application of Indigenous Knowledge Systems in Water Conservation and Management: The Case of Khambashe , Eastern Cape South Africa

Indigenous Knowledge Systems are potential transformative tools if they are effectively integrated in water conservation and management systems not only as a matter of redress but also to enrich the current water systems. Local Knowledge systems provide a sound platform for the conservation and management of water in rural areas. The main objective of this study was to identify and investigate the indigenous practises in water management and conservation processes. This study builds upon fieldwork undertaken in the Khambashe rural district in Buffalo City municipality, Eastern Cape. Data collection methods utilised were survey questionnaires, interviews and observation. Statistical data was analysed through the Statistical Package of Social Sciences. The findings indicated that despite a number of values associated with water in the Xhosa culture, loss of ecological and traditional knowledge towards water security confronts many inhabitants. Despite the weak institutional capacities, failure of the state to provide efficient water structures combined with the challenges that Khambashe faces with regards to water, there is failure to recognise and accommodate traditional or cultural values as an alternative to manage and conserve water in rural Khambashe. Relatively a few people still have a strong interest in the indigenous knowledge systems that motivate communities to undertake cultural obligations towards achieving water security. DOI: 10.5901/ajis.2014.v3n4p151

Zero liquid discharge and water conservation through water reclamation & reuse of biotreated palm oil mill effluent: a review

World natural resources are now going into extinction as evident from the accelerating depletion of our water resources through the persistent but exorable pollutions confronting our water environment daily. Despite this, some part of the world still witnesses overwhelming wastage of fresh water due to lack of proper motivation towards water management policies from the policy makers as well as professionals. Malaysia as a country was known as a place of huge amount of fresh water coupled with regular rainfalls around the year but now witnessing depletion in its fresh waters due to environmental pollution. One of the main causes of this pollution is the palm oil industry which discharges its Biotreated Palm Oil Mill Effluent (BPOME) into the rivers after little but insufficient treatments. This paper reviews the status, rationale and potential of water reuse in Malaysia. The piece further reflects the potential of advanced technologies to produce regenerated water offering specific solutions to industrial or agricultural reuse needs from BPOME, thus suggesting potential, affordable and cost effective water conservation systems through zero liquid discharge (ZLD) technology and water reclamation from BPOME discharge.

From practice to theory: emerging lessons from Asia for building urban climate change resilience

This paper aims to capture and analyze emerging experiences, lessons and tensions evident from several years of work underway through the Asian Cities Climate Change Resilience Network, a network of secondary cities in South and Southeast Asia that have engaged in a process to analyze vulnerabilities and plan and implement measures to address them. With the support of the Rockefeller Foundation and numerous partners, these cities have identified more than 59 specific resilience-building measures, of which 23 are being implemented. Through this work we see 10 critical urban climate change resilience action areas that cities must consider in order to strengthen their ability to anticipate, prepare for and respond to the types of sudden and slow onset impacts. These are: climate sensitive land use and urban planning; institutional coordination mechanisms and capacity support; drainage, flood and solid waste management; water demand and conservation systems; emergency management and early warning systems; responsive health systems; resilient housing and transport systems; strengthening of ecosystem services; diversification and protection of climate-affected livelihoods; and education and capacity building of citizens. We present case studies of how these measures are implemented in specific cities and highlight the tensions and challenges that have emerged. Primary tensions arise around the powerful political economy forces that influence decisions in cities; ensuring that the risks and benefits of resilience-building measures are distributed equitably; aligning incentives of various stakeholders in cities; and developing the mandates, coordination and capacities needed to manage a multi-scale and multi-sector issue as complex as urban climate change resilience. This empirical base of practice provides important learning to help guide further the refinement of both theory and practice in the nascent field of urban climate change resilience.

Farmer's perception and adaptation practices to cope with drought: Perspectives from Northwestern Bangladesh

This study was conducted with 718 farmers of owner, owner-cum-tenant and tenant farmers of irrigated and non-irrigated villages at 14 upazila (sub-district) in two severe drought-prone districts of northwestern Bangladesh through a semi-structured questionnaire. It assessed farmer's perception and awareness, impacts and adaptation measures of farmers towards drought. The results revealed that farmers in both areas perceived a changed climate in recent years. They not only identified that drought is the most prevalent disaster in the study area because of rainfall and temperature variation, but also groundwater depletion, lack of canal and river dragging, increased population, deforestation, etc. accelerate drought in this area. As a consequence of drought, agriculture as well as farmers' social life and health are threatened the most. To cope with drought, farmers have been adapting various practices mainly through agronomic management, crop intensification, water resource exploitation, etc. Among different farmer groups in both irrigated and non-irrigated areas, it has been seen that owner farmers have more capacity to adopt new technology than owner-cum-tenant and tenant farmer. In conclusion, this study recommended that interrelationship among different stakeholders, effective early warning system and improved water conservation systems are essential to sustain farmers livelihood in the event of drought.

Is Agriculture in Gujarat on a Different Growth Trajectory?

Gujarat's approach to agricultural development is in every sense unique; the 9 % growth rate in the sector testifies the same. Can this be replicated in other states in India? Perhaps, much of it can. Water availability and particularly through indigenous and ingenuous water harvesting systems in arid and semi-arid areas holds the key; this could be run as a people -- led & government supported initiative. Leveraging the support of community-based organizations/civil society organisations (CSO) can be useful to set the momentum. This government led and CSO supported endevaour can make see change in the lives and livelihoods of farmers. Water harvesting needs to be followed by water conservation systems, which could be directed through appropriate incentivisation and public policy. While the water harvesting systems upfront enabled provision of much needed life saving irrigations, the later (water conservation through micro-irrigation systems) could enable greater sustainability of the water conservation measures. While the watershed approach is a more technical, intricate and time consuming measure, the Gujarat approaches have showcased that such subtle, in situ water harvesting can also be a very effective, sustainable and replicable endeavor. Provision of government led, participative extension and mass contact programme like Krishi Mahotsav is a very successful initiative. This approach besides fulfilling the primary role of taking “lab to the land” can win the hearts of the people, regain the faith of the people in the system and above all, enable the research and extension to get more practical orientation and exposure to their initiatives -- “ Krishi Mahotsavs” have also proven that there are many takeaways for the researchers as well. Jyotigram Yojana looks the least likely to be replicated because it abandons the free-but-unreliable rural power that many regard as vote-winners in most states. Further, some states may prefer large irrigation projects to small water-harvesting ones, since bigger projects translate into more visible impacts and bigger things to few!! In fact Gujarat has learned to provide the real kick-starters to high growth agriculture by making water available on its parched lands…. It's time others take notice!!

Tephra-mulched soils irrigated with reclaimed urban wastewater in former dry-farming systems of Lanzarote (Spain)

On the island of Lanzarote, under extreme conditions of aridity and water scarcity, a certain amount of rainfed agriculture has been possible due to the use of tephra mulching, a system known locally as arenados , which is a very effective water and soil conservation system. The natural arenados are associated to already present tephra from recent volcanic eruptions. In artificial arenados a 5 to 20 cm layer of pyroclasts is placed over the soil. Over the last decade, the availability of urban reclaimed water (RW) has allowed irrigation networks to be established in artificial arenados with significant increases in crop yields. In this work, a preliminary evaluation of the sustainability of this new form of management was performed. Field plots irrigated with tertiary effluent for almost a decade were studied and compared with adjacent dry-farming fields, both cropped with sweet potatoes. In both cases, the soils had a covering of basaltic tephra mulch. The irrigation lines are placed on top of the mulch. Although this was not a controlled field experiment, since water and soil management was not exactly the same in the studied plots, some significant effects of RW irrigation on soil chemical properties were identified. Crop yields in the irrigated fields can be up to three times the yields obtained under rainfed conditions. The RW quality posed some restrictions for irrigation, particularly as regards salinity, sodicity and boron, although their buildup in soils appears to have been reduced by the mulch effect. In some field plots, crop critical threshold values of soil salinity and boron were reached with no harmful consequences. This developing soil degradation suggests that the sustainability of arenados systems under RW irrigation would appear to be under threat in the mid- to long-term based on current management practices. Further research is required on the salt and boron dynamics in this system, which is an example of conservation agriculture that also helps combat desertification. ► Introduction of irrigation has permitted to conserve dry-farming tephra-mulched soils. ► Important increase of crop yields. ► Long-term sustainability can be threaten by sodium, boron, and salinity hazards.

Root morphology and effects on soil reinforcement and slope stability of young vetiver (Vetiveria zizanioides) plants grown in semi-arid climate

Currently used in many countries in the world, vetiver grass (Vetiveria zizanioides) applications include soil and water conservation systems in agricultural environment, slope stabilization, mine rehabilitation, contaminated soil and saline land remediation, as well as wastewater treatment. The root system morphology of vetiver was investigated in a small plantation growing on abandoned marl terraces in southern Spain. Root distribution with depth, laterally from the plant, as well as root parameters such as root diameter and tensile strength were also investigated. The profile wall method combined with the block excavation showed that the vetiver grass grows numerous positively gravitropic roots of more or less uniform diameter. These were generally distributed in the uppermost soil horizon closer to the culm base. In situ shear test on blocks of soil permeated with vetiver roots were carried out and showed a greater shear strength resistance than the samples of non vegetated soil. The root reinforcement measured in situ was comparable to the one predicted by the perpendicular root reinforcement model. The stability of a modelled terraced slope planted with vetiver was marginally greater than the one of a non-vegetated slope. A local instability on one terrace can have a detrimental effect on the overall stability of the terraced slope.

Community initiatives in building and managing temporary check-dams across seasonal streams for water harvesting in South India

We analyze traditional community initiatives in building and managing temporary check-dams across seasonal streams in Kumbadaje panchayat in the state of Kerala in India. This is a fairly successful system, functioning for decades in the study area. Check-dams overcome water scarcity faced by farmers during the summer irrigation season and thereby play a crucial role in farming. We identify issues in the management of check-dams, noting how this traditional water harvesting and conservation system suits the local geographic conditions and needs to be sustained and promoted.

Environmental and visual impact analysis of viticulture and olive tree cultivation in the province of Siena (Italy)

This study aimed at setting up a comprehensive approach on viticultural and olive tree cultivation environmental impact, through soil and landscape change analysis at the years 1965, 1990, 1994 and 2000, both at the catchment and province scales. The study area was the province of Siena, in central Italy. Following a DPSIR approach, the State indicators checked the Impact of agricultural policies (Drivers), which have increased the Pressure of specialized crops, and suggested Response actions. The indicators selected for the catchment scale stressed the consequences of land use change on soil quality, capability and suitability. They were: (1) land use and land cover; (2) soil and water conservation management system, (3) soil hydrological group, (4) land capability; (5) land suitability for wine grape production. At the province level, four original indicators highlighted at the reconnaissance scale the impact of the two crops on soil conservation and management – (6) soil erosion risk, (7) soil management – as well as on visual attractiveness of landscape – (8) slope length of vineyards, (9) crop saturation of the landscape unit and its variation in time. The results showed that, at the catchment level, the twenty-fold increase in specialized viticulture and olive tree cultivation, along with the generalised adoption of the “up and down slope” soil and water conservation system, caused the impairment of soil hydrological group, land capability and suitability for growing quality wine. At the province level, soil erosion risk and soil management difficulty almost doubled in the transition from the traditional mixed to the new specialized tree cultivation. The areas traditionally producing wine protected by appellation of origin (DOCG) determined the distribution of land use and all the other impact indicators. Slope length of vineyards showed that the enlargement of the surface covered by vines preferentially affected lands close to already established DOCG farms. DOCG areas resulted somewhat saturated by vineyards, but not by olive tree groves. The response should foresee the following actions: (i) when planting new olive groves and vineyards, measures should be taken to avoid the complete removal of the subsurface soil B horizon; (ii) new plantations should maintain slope degree of less than 21% in any part of the field; (iii) the shape of new plantations should conform to slope morphology, thus avoiding the creation of long, wide and uniform slopes. The aim should be to limit the length of the fields to less than 150–300 m and to adopt or preserve the contour management systems.

Benefits of plant strips for sustainable mountain agriculture

Erosion degrades soil quality in agricultural ecosystems, thereby reducing the productivity of the land. Semi-natural vegetation and diverse cropping systems have been converted into monocultures with low tree densities, leaving the soil unprotected. We evaluated the association in soil- and water-conservation systems with production in traditional almond orchards and the beneficial impact of plant strips in mountainous agriculture. Soil loss, runoff and nutrient loss over a four-year period (2002–2005) were monitored in hillside erosion plots with almond trees under different soil-management systems: (1) non-tillage with sage (Salvia lavandulifolia L. subspecies Oxyodon) strips 3 m wide; (2) non-tillage with rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) strips, (3) non-tillage with thyme (Thymus baeticus L. Boiss. exlacaita) strips, and (4) conventional tillage on the south flank of the Sierra Nevada (Lanjaron) in south-eastern Spain. Also, the nut yield from almond trees, and the biomass from aromatic-shrub strips were measured. The erosion plots, located on a 35% slope, were 144 m2 in area. The plant-cover strips, 3 m wide, ran across the slope. Our results show that the most effective treatment proved to be non-tillage with thyme strips, reducing the annual soil loss by 93% and runoff by 80%, with respect to conventional tillage. Non-tillage with rosemary strips reduced soil loss by 91 % and runoff by 82%, with respect to conventional tillage, while these percentages were 69% and 51%, respectively, for non-tillage with sage strips. In addition, all the treatments as a whole, in comparison with conventional tillage, revealed that the plant strips were the decisive factor in the reduction of NPK losses by surface runoff. The average nut yield from non-tillage with sage strips, non-tillage with rosemary strips, non-tillage with thyme strips and conventional tillage during the study period was 2.4, 3.2, 3.8 and 4.5 kg tree−1, respectively, and the essential oil yield from sage, rosemary and thyme strips was 5.0, 8.7 and 10.8 L ha−1, respectively. The non-tillage with thyme strips decreased nutrient loading in surface waters and thus had a positive impact on the environment while simultaneously maintaining reasonable almond-production levels. Thus, the combination of orchard trees with shrubs provided a viable option to conserve soil and water in hilly areas with opportunities to increase overall land productivity as well as sustainable agro-environmental measures.

Rehabilitation of saline soils by means of volcanic material coverings

SummaryThe scarcity of water in arid regions promotes natural soil salinization processes, which limit soil productivity, cause degradation and contribute to desertification. Human activity can speed up these processes although it can also help reduce their effects and even rehabilitate affected soils. A number of traditional soil water conservation systems used in farming are also techniques for reducing soil salinity. Examples include systems that involve the use of volcanic materials as mulch, a practice known as ‘arenados’ that has been common for decades in the Canary Islands. The present work examines short‐term changes in the salinity of two saline soils, one with clay texture and the other with loamy texture, both of which were covered artificially with a 12‐cm layer of basaltic pyroclasts. Monitoring over a period of 4 years, during which rainfall averaged 130 mm for the clay soil and 120 mm for the loam, revealed a decrease of approximately 76% and 86%, respectively, in the salinity of the top 40 cm of the profile in the two soils. The decreased salinity of the rooting zone, which is associated with an improved moisture regime in the covered soils has given rise to a form of dryland farming with acceptable yields in a soil environment which is otherwise poorly suited to agriculture.

Seasonal variation of grassed waterway effectiveness in reducing runoff and sediment delivery from agricultural watersheds in temperate Europe

Grassed waterways (GWWs) with large hydraulic roughness exhibit a great potential to reduce runoff, sediments and pollutants coming from agricultural watersheds. For conservation planning the knowledge of overall effectiveness and its seasonal variation is highly relevant. Our objectives were to (i) evaluate the seasonal variation in runoff reduction and sediment trapping in a GWW, (ii) identify the driving parameters and (iii) measure and analyse the seasonal variation of each of these parameters. Runoff and sediment delivery were measured between 1994 and 2001 in two paired subwatersheds, both optimised to reduce runoff and sediment delivery by an intensive soil conservation system within the fields. In one of the subwatersheds additionally a GWW (290 m long, 37 m wide) was established to further improve soil and water conservation. During the observation period it reduced runoff and sediment delivery by 87 and 93%, respectively. 70% of total outflow and 68% of total sediment output occurred between February and April, mainly controlled by watershed hydrology. Seasonal changes in GWW properties, namely soil water content and hydraulic roughness, had a minor effect. It was most notably in May and June, when available field capacity averaged 59% while inflow was dominated by single heavy rain events (15% of total inflow). In general, the results indicate the high potential of GWWs for reducing runoff and sediment delivery, especially if combined with an intensive soil and water conservation system in the draining fields. For conservation planning, the least effectiveness at the end of winter should be taken into account.

Ngoro: an indigenous, sustainable and profitable soil, water and nutrient conservation system in Tanzania for sloping land

The Matengo people, in SW Tanzania, developed the ngoro conservation system several hundred years ago and it is a very effective indigenous manual cultivation practice for steep slopes. It deserves wider recognition and investigation to gain a quantitative understanding of the conservation system processes and its management to see whether it can be adapted to be more cost effective with limited land and labour resources. The objective of the study was to evaluate the effects of pit size in the ngoro cultivation system on soil water conservation and yield of maize ( Zea mays L.). A field experiment was conducted in 1995/1996 at two sites near Lipumba village on the Matengo highlands in Mbinga District, Ruvuma Region, in southern Tanzania. The ngoro comprise a matrix of pits with surrounding bund walls and this indigenous system is used extensively on the steep slopes (typically 20–50%) of Mbinga District. Grass is cut prior to cultivation and laid out in a matrix, traditionally about 1.5 m×1.5 m square, soil is then dug from the middle of each square and placed to cover the cut grass to form four bunds surrounding each pit. Crops are planted on these bund walls (ridges), under which buried decomposing plant residues provide nutrients and also ingeniously allow seepage of excessive water across the ngoro system. The ngoro pit size treatments comprised N 1 ( 1 m×1 m), N 1.5 ( 1.5 m×1.5 m) and N 2 ( 2 m×2 m) laid in a randomised complete block design with four replications. Although ngoro profiles were degraded over time, the net loss of soil from the system was negligible as the majority of soil was redeposited in the pit. N 2 was found to be the most suitable pit size on steep slopes. Pit size did not significantly influence the soil moisture regime as measured in this study. Increase in pit size generally resulted in decreased soil penetration resistance and improved plant growth resulting in the highest grain yield being obtained from the 2 m×2 m ngoros. Increasing the pit size reduced labour input requirements and thereby markedly boosted the profitability of the system.

Factors that influence farm women to advocate the adoption of environmentally benign agricultural production practices

Few researchers have examined the roles and responsibilities of women in the farm enterprise or women's influence in the adoption of environmentally responsible farming practices; thus, women's role in the adoption of conservation practices has remained relatively unclear. A better understanding of women's role around the farm and in the adoption process could assist policy makers and conservation professionals who wish to impact farm-level decisions with their programs. The following study has empirically investigated midwestern women's environmental orientations and roles in the farm enterprise and household and whether these variables influence farm women to advocate the adoption of environmentally benign farming practices. The theoretical model used to guide the research was based on a combination of elements from social learning theory and gender socialisation theory. Questionnaires were distributed to farm women in Ohio and Minnesota to examine the factors that affect advocacy for environmentally responsible behaviours at the farm level. Discriminant analysis was used to test the theoretical model, which showed five variables as significant predictors of advocacy for environmentally benign agricultural practices. Although five variables were found as significant in the analysis, the measure of the strength of association between the dependent variable and the independent variables in the analysis was relatively low. Therefore, the theoretical model had limited utility for predicting which respondents would be advocates of soil and water conservation systems. Despite the limitations of the research model, future research should be conducted on farm women since the study has shown that some women are indeed influential in the process to adopt conservation production systems on their farms.

Assessing Public Opinion on Water Conservation and Water Conserving Landscapes in the Semiarid Southwestern United States

A survey instrument was designed to determine public opinion on water conservation, water conserving landscapes, the use of native plants in landscapes, home irrigation systems, and the performance of five Texas native plant species [pink evening primrose (Oenothera speciosa); prairie verbena (Verbena bipinnatifida); red yucca (Hesperaloe parviflora); ceniza (Leucophyllum frutescens); and ruellia (Ruellia nudiflora)] grown in low water use landscapes in the semiarid Southwestern United States. On six occasions during the 1999 growing season, participants viewed landscapes and participated in a survey. Survey data indicate that over 90% of respondents thought water conservation was important to the state of Texas. A majority of participants however, believed water conserving landscapes to be expensive to maintain and not aesthetically pleasing. The survey revealed 79% of participants would use native plants if native plants conserved water, and 86% of participants would use native plants if native plants were attractive. Chi-square approximations revealed participant's opinions regarding water conservation and home irrigation systems were influenced by education level and amount of time they participated in weekly horticulture activities. In an open-ended question, participants indicated flowers and healthy leaves were characteristics indicating a plant was performing well. Throughout the year, species in flower received higher ratings than nonflowering species.

SPATIAL VARIATIONS OF WATER LOSS DURING DROUGH A CASE STUDY1

ABSTRACT: A regional water conservation system for drought management involves many uncertain factors. Water received from precipitation may stay on the ground surface, evaporate back into the atmosphere, or infiltrate into the ground. Reliable estimates of the amount of evapotranspiration and infiltration are not available for a large basin, especially during periods of drought. By applying a geographic information system, this study develops procedures to investigate spatial variations of unavailable water for given levels of drought severity. Levels of drought severity are defined by truncated values of monthly precipitation and daily streamflow to reflect levels of water availability. The greater the truncation level, the lower the precipitation or streamflow. Truncation levels of monthly precipitation are recorded in depth of water while those of daily streamflow are converted into monthly equivalent water depths. Truncation levels of precipitation and streamflow treated as regionalized variables are spatially interpolated by the unbiased minimum variance estimation. The interpolated results are vector values of precipitation and streamflow at a grid of points covering the studied basin. They are then converted into raster‐based values and expressed graphically. The image subtraction operation is used to subtract the image of streamflow from that of precipitation at their corresponding level of drought severity. It is done on a cell‐by‐cell basis resulting in new attribute values to form the spatial image representing a spatial distribution of potential water loss at a given level of drought severity.

5775372 Universal water and energy conservation system : Houlihan John A Santa Maria, CA, United States

5775372 Universal water and energy conservation system : Houlihan John A Santa Maria, CA, United States

Research Agenda on Sustainability of Irrigated Agriculture

The materials presented in this paper are the result of a North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Advanced Research Workshop on “Sustainability of Irrigated Agriculture (Sustainability of Water Resources Utilization in Agriculture),” which was held in Vimeiro, Portugal between 21 and 26 March 1994. The workshop was cosponsored by the Science and Technology for Development (STD) program of the European Union, Centre International de Hautes Etudes Agronomiques Mediterraneennes (IHEAM), Centre Technique de Cooperation Agricole et Rurale (CTA), Institut Francais de Recherche pour L’ingenierie de L’agriculture et de L’environnement (CEMAGREF) and Junta Nacional de Investigacao cienifica e tecnologica (JNICT). The purpose of that workshop was to provide in-depth discussion on irrigated agriculture among researchers and professionals of different disciplines coming from both developed and developing countries. The workshop objective was to integrate existing science and technology into improved irrigation system performance and agricultural water management, and to provide recommendations for future research directed toward sustainability of water use in agriculture. A total of 43 papers were presented and discussed under the following topics: (1) Sustainability of world irrigation systems; (2) water management and water policies; (3) sustainability of indigenous water and soil conservation systems; (4) irrigation water management and scheduling; (5) on-farm irrigation systems; (6) irrigation scheme management; (7) sustainability and environmental concerns; and (8) technological transfer. The research priorities presented in this paper evolved from group discussions and are based on a common understanding of the challenges that our generation faces to ensure sustainable agricultural development, both in developed and developing countries. The priorities were established by voting of the workshop participants.

5465434 Water conservation system for home installation

5465434 Water conservation system for home installation

Indigenous soil and water conservation: A review of the state of knowledge and prospects for building on traditions

AbstractAfter half a century of failed soil and water conservation projects in tropical developing countries, technical specialists and policy makers are reconsidering their strategy. It is increasingly recognised that the land users have valuable environmental knowledge themselves. This review explores two hypotheses: first, that much can be learned from previously ignored indigenous soil and water conservation (ISWC) practices; second, that ISWC can often act as a suitable starting point for the development of technologies and programmes. However, information on ISWC is patchy and scattered. Many ancient, derelict systems are better described than traditions which still persist today. ISWC has been most commonly developed under dry and marginal conditions, and/or on steep hillsides. Sustained population pressure has often tended to stimulate ISWC. There is a need for more incorporation of ISWC into resource conservation programmes: many projects have ignored local traditions to their detriment. It is widely agreed that further study and research on ISWC is required and justified as a logical starting point towards developing adoptable and sustainable soil and water conservation systems for small‐scale farmers.