Water Conditioner Research Articles

Overcoming Hard Water Antagonistic to Glyphosate or Imazethapyr with Water Conditioners

Carrier water quality may affect the activity of weak acid herbicides when concentrations of some cations are high. A dose-response experiment on glyphosate and imazethapyr activity, which were carried by the carrier types of distilled water and hard water, against jimsonweed were conducted to compare the water conditioning chemicals ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate, citric acid and potassium phosphate, with magnetized carrier as a new method. A magnetic field of 0.7 Tesla was applied to prepare the magnetized carrier. With the exception of potassium phosphate with imazethapyr, the activity of glyphosate and imazethapyr was significantly increased in the presence of the water conditioning methods when distilled water was used as the carrier. Ammonium sulfate was the most effective method. The activity of both herbicides was decreased when applied with hard water carrier. Potassium phosphate was not effective at reducing the antagonism of cations in the hard water carrier. In glyphosate, the performance of water conditioning methods in softening hard water carrier could be ranked as follows: ammonium sulfate (2.52-fold) > magnetized carrier (2.12-fold) ≥ citric acid (1.64-fold) ≥ ammonium nitrate (1.39-fold) > potassium phosphate (0.96-fold). In imazethapyr, this order was as follows: ammonium sulfate (2.99-fold) > ammonium nitrate (2.66-fold) > magnetized carrier (1.81-fold) ≥ citric acid (1.64-fold) > potassium phosphate (1.10-fold).

Overcoming Hard Water Antagonistic to Glyphosate or Imazethapyr with Water Conditioners

Carrier water quality may affect the activity of weak acid herbicides when concentrations of some cations are high. A dose-response experiment on glyphosate and imazethapyr activity, which were carried by the carrier types of distilled water and hard water, against jimsonweed were conducted to compare the water conditioning chemicals ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate, citric acid and potassium phosphate, with magnetized carrier as a new method. A magnetic field of 0.7 Tesla was applied to prepare the magnetized carrier. With the exception of potassium phosphate with imazethapyr, the activity of glyphosate and imazethapyr was significantly increased in the presence of the water conditioning methods when distilled water was used as the carrier. Ammonium sulfate was the most effective method. The activity of both herbicides was decreased when applied with hard water carrier. Potassium phosphate was not effective at reducing the antagonism of cations in the hard water carrier. In glyphosate, the performance of water conditioning methods in softening hard water carrier could be ranked as follows: ammonium sulfate (2.52-fold) > magnetized carrier (2.12-fold) ≥ citric acid (1.64-fold) ≥ ammonium nitrate (1.39-fold) > potassium phosphate (0.96-fold). In imazethapyr, this order was as follows: ammonium sulfate (2.99-fold) > ammonium nitrate (2.66-fold) > magnetized carrier (1.81-fold) ≥ citric acid (1.64-fold) > potassium phosphate (1.10-fold).

Effects of stocking density and water conditioners on yolk-sac larvae of two marine finfish during simulated air transport

As marine finfish aquaculture expands, there is an increasing interest in the ability to ship early life stages from breeding centres to hatcheries so that each hatchery does not have to maintain its own broodstock. Here, we conducted 24 h air-shipping simulations with yolk-sac larvae of California yellowtail (CYT; Seriola lalandi) and white seabass (WSB; Atractoscion nobilis) to help fill in the informational gaps for shipping marine fish larvae. We examined the effects of a pH buffer on water quality, post-shipping larval survival and subsequent survival to first feeding at larval densities of 1000, 3000, 6000 and 9000 larvae L−1. The pH buffer, 8.3 Trizma®, was tested at varying concentrations of zero (NT = 0.00 g L−1), low (LT = 0.75 g L−1), medium (MT = 1.5 g L−1) and high (HT = 3.0 g L−1). Trials were conducted using replicate 2 L aquarium bags filled with 500 mL of seawater and held in a water bath at 19–20°C. Results showed an interspecific difference in survival at the highest shipping densities under these experimental conditions. Shipping densities up to 6750 CYT larvae L−1 or 3000 WSB larvae L−1 consistently yielded >90% survival immediately after simulated shipment and >85% survival 48 h after the simulations. Furthermore, at these densities, pH was maintained at ~8.0 when buffered at 1.5 g L−1. The highest tested densities of 9580 CYT larvae L−1 and 9940 WSB larvae L−1, yielded lower survival 69–79% and 0.0–1.3% respectively after 24 h. Final pH in the high density CYT trials were unsatisfactory (below 7.0), regardless of the buffer concentration; however pH in the WSB high density trials improved with increasing buffer concentration. On the basis of the results from these air-shipping simulations, we recommend CYT and WSB larvae be shipped in seawater with 1.5 g L−1 Trizma® at densities not greater than 6750 larvae L−1 for CYT and 3000 larvae L−1 for WSB. We believe this represents an important step in improving long distance transport protocols for these species and provides useful guidance in air transport of other economically and ecologically important marine species. Additional research is warranted to compare these simulation results with those from actual air shipments, as we did not account for factors that may vary in flight like temperature and pressure variations, and physical agitation.

Scientific Investigations on the Claims of the Magnetic Water Conditioners

A lot of study has gone into the principles and function of magnetic “Water Softeners” around the world. The results have been mixed, the tests run of the function of these devices by the device manufacturers usually turn out fine, while tests run by anybody else usually don’t. Although a variety of claims are made about magnetic water conditioners for softening water, through “Pre-precipitation”, changing the hardness in the water from Sticky” crystals to “Non-sticky”, or somehow rendering the hardness ions inert. This article focuses specifically on the claimed benefits of magnetically treated water, by scientific investigation for five commercial water conditioners from different manufacturers and for different purposes, the manufacturer’s instructions are considered. The investigation is carried out based on measurable and analyzed parameters (pH, TDS, Hardness). After a lot of serious laboratory measurements and chemical analysis, it is concluded that; the magnetic water conditioners have no effect on the water pH, total dissolved salts, and hardness.

Magnetized Water and Memory Meter

This paper presents an experimental study to investigate the effect of using the magnetic water conditioner on the properties of water. The water flows through a closed loop, while the pH, TDS, and hardness represent its properties. For magnetic water conditioner with flux density of 170 mT, results showed that pH increased by 15.65% for 820 minutes of non-stop circulation. The increase in pH is divided to 93.5% for the first 360 minutes, and 6.5% for the last 460 minutes. TDS and Hardness of water are not affected by the magnetic water conditioner. Water remembers and keeps the impact of passing through the magnetic field for several hours, and pH decreased by 0.642 in24 hours. While the results lead to introduce and create the magnetized water saturation curve and water memory meter.

Usefulness of Non-Chemical Water Conditioners for Managing Turfgrasses and their Rootzones

Physical water conditioning products have been used on golf courses to improve turfgrass quality, improve rootzone salinity, and to reduce irrigation water use. A four-year study was conducted at New Mexico State University to investigate the effects of non-chemical in-line water conditioners (two catalytic, one magnetic, one hydro-electric, and a control treatment) on turfgrass establishment, and on turfgrass quality and rootzone salinity of a perennial ryegrass stand. Conditioning treatments were applied under potable [Electrical conductivity (EC) = 0.6 dS/m] and saline (EC = 3.1 dS/m) irrigation. Conditioning treatments did not affect perennial ryegrass establishment, only saline irrigation delayed establishment. Turfgrass quality on control plots did not differ from conditioner treated plots for both water qualities on all but one sampling date. The rootzone salinity results were inconclusive; no clear consistent trends were found for individual measured parameters. After four years of research, a consistent positive impact of these conditioning units on turf quality and rootzone salinity could not be substantiated.

Treatment of saline water by care- free water conditioners equipment and its effect on some of the soil physical properties and sodium adsorption ratio in the silty clay soil.

Treatment of saline water by care- free water conditioners equipment and its effect on some of the soil physical properties and sodium adsorption ratio in the silty clay soil.

A Test Method for Evaluating Water Conditioning Adjuvants

Abstract Glyphosate is a weak acid herbicide and can bind with antagonistic salts in the spray carrier. Diammonium sulfate (AMS) is commonly used as an adjuvant with glyphosate to enhance activity and overcome antagonistic salts. Water conditioning (WC) adjuvants are used at low rates and are used as AMS replacement adjuvants. However, an ASTM approved method for testing WC adjuvants has not been established. Appropriate research parameters were used to test the water conditioner definition. Glyphosate plus NIS and glyphosate plus AMS and nonionic surfactant (NIS) were used as standards from comparing WC adjuvants. WC were compared to NIS and AMS plus NIS to determine the potential to reduce or eliminate antagonism between glyphosate and antagonistic cations. Velvetleaf was a good indicator to show antagonism, the ability for AMS and WC adjuvants to overcome antagonism, and also show greater bioefficacy. Velvetleaf, a mixture of broadleaf species, and a mixture of grass species all showed similar response to WC adjuvants. Studies to test water conditioning adjuvants were conducted at multiple locations provided a high degree of precision.

Notational Analysis of American Women's Collegiate Water Polo Matches

Women's water polo is a relatively recent addition to the program of the Olympic Games, making its debut in 2000. Although technical and tactical aspects of men's water polo performance have been studied, there is a paucity of information on the women's competition. Thus, the present study aimed to analyze the technical and tactical aspects of 12 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) women's water polo matches in relation to 3 playing situations (Even, Counterattack, Power Play) and match outcome (winning and losing teams). The notational analysis included the following indicators: frequency of occurrence of the offensive actions, duration, players, passes, turnovers, exclusion and penalty achievement, goal, and origin and type of shot. Differences between winning and losing teams emerged for duration of actions (p = 0.024), number of players (p = 0.033), passes (p < 0.0001), exclusions and penalties achieved (p = 0.026), shots originating inside (p = 0.002) and outside (p = 0.002) the 5-m area, and occurrence of goals (p < 0.0001) during the Even situation; exclusions and penalties achieved (p = 0.029), shots following up fake (p = 0.049), and goals (p = 0.021) during the Counterattacks; and passes (p = 0.02), and goals (p = 0.003) during the Power-Play actions. In conclusion, winners showed a better ability to perform faster actions, with more effective passes leading to goals. Thus, women's water polo NCAA coaches and conditioners are encouraged to evaluate the studied technical and tactical parameters when analyzing game performances of their teams.

A review of polymer-based water conditioners for reduction of handling-related injury

Fish are coated with an external layer of protective mucus. This layer serves as the primary barrier against infection or injury, reduces friction, and plays a role in ionic and osmotic regulation. However, the mucus layer is easily disturbed when fish are netted, handled, transported, stressed, or subjected to adverse water conditions. Water additives containing polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) or proprietary polymers have been used to prevent the deleterious effects of mucus layer disturbances in the commercial tropical fish industry, aquaculture, and for other fisheries management purposes. This paper reviews research on the effectiveness of water conditioners, and examines the contents and uses of a wide variety of commercially available water conditioners. Water conditioners containing polymers may reduce external damage to fish held in containers during scientific experimentation, including surgical implantation of electronic tags. However, there is a need to empirically test the effectiveness of water conditioners at preventing damage to and promoting healing of the mucus layer. A research agenda is provided to advance the science related to the use of water conditions to improve the condition of fish during handling and tagging.

Do nit removal formulations and other treatments loosen head louse eggs and nits from hair?

Eggs of the head louse, Pediculus capitis De Geer (Phthiraptera: Pediculidae), are difficult to remove because the female louse fixes them to hairs using a proteinaceous secretion that hardens within seconds. The persistent eggshells are harmless but unsightly and are often mistaken for an active infestation. Combing with a fine comb (nit comb) does not readily remove the eggs or empty eggshells because of the resilience of the fixative and both folk remedies and medical products have claimed to facilitate their removal. Measurement of the force required to initiate sliding of the egg fixative using a slip-peel tester was unable to detect evidence that any of three products which claimed to have egg-loosening properties (Step 2 Nit Removal System, Clear Lice Egg Remover, RID Lice Egg Loosener Gel) had any activity or exerted any effect on the egg fixative beyond the lubricating effects conveyed by water or conventional hair conditioner.

Glyphosate Weed Control Enhancement with Ammonium Sulfate and Commercial Water Conditioning Agents

Abstract Glyphosate herbicide labels generally recommend addition of ammonium sulfate (AMS) to the spray solution, which often improves weed control, especially when mixed with hard water. AMS in solution disassociates, and the sulfate binds with cations in the spray solution, preventing the development of glyphosate-cation complexes that tend to have lower absorption into plant leaves. In addition, the ammonium ion can associate with the glyphosate molecule, which helps facilitate glyphosate absorption into the leaf. The recommended AMS rate is 1–2 % w/w, and AMS is available in both dry and liquid formulations. Applicators generally find AMS inconvenient to use because of the high use rate and handling issues. Several companies are marketing low-rate water conditioner products to be used as an alternative to AMS with glyphosate. Pesticide applicators like the convenience of low-rate water conditioners, but performance of these products has been inconsistent. Field experiments were conducted near Manhattan, KS, from 2005 to 2008 to compare the efficacy of glyphosate with AMS and various commercial water conditioners on velvetleaf, sorghum, corn, and sunflower. Each experiment consisted of a sublethal (0.31 or 0.43 kg ae/ha) dose of glyphosate applied in combination with the recommended application rate of each adjuvant. Water hardness, environmental conditions, and plant growth stages varied by experiment. Control of all assay species with glyphosate was enhanced by the addition of AMS, unless control was near complete in the absence of AMS. Commercial water conditioner products that included an AMS component at the equivalent rate of 1 % w/w gave equal or slightly better control than glyphosate plus 1 % w/w AMS. Commercial water conditioners that did not provide an equivalent amount of AMS gave less control than glyphosate with 1 % or 2 % w/w AMS and were often no better than glyphosate alone for the low-rate products.

(99) Using Naphthalene Acetic Acid, Prohexadione-Ca, Ethephon, and Scoring to Reduce Vegetative Growth in Upper Canopy of Apple Trees

In 2004, at full bloom, 3-year-old `Cameo'/G.16, `Gala'/M.9 NA-KBT337, `Gala'/G.16, and `Redmax'/B.9 apple trees were treated with naphthalene acetic acid (NAA, 1.5% in latex paint) in a 7.5-cm band completely around the central leader at the base of 2-year-old wood. NAA treatment reduced 2004 extension growth of the central leader by 14% and total shoot growth above the treatment area by 32%. `Cameo'/G.16 trees also were sprayed with prohexadione-Ca (250 ppm with surfactant and water conditioner) at full bloom, and additional trees were sprayed with ethephon (500 ppm with surfactant) 1 week after full bloom. These spray treatments were made only to the stems and foliage from the base of the central leader's 2-year-old wood to the top of the canopy. Ethephon reduced total shoot growth in 2004 by 26%, and prohexadione-Ca reduced it by 63%. Prohexadione-Ca also reduced fruit set of `Cameo' in 2004. Scoring (single knife cut completely around the circumference of the trunk) at the base of the 2-year-old wood in the `Cameo' trees resulted in a 23% reduction in leader growth and a 22% in totals shoot growth in the upper canopy in 2004. In 2005 at full bloom, 4-year-old `Golden Delicous'/B.9 trees were treated with NAA similarly to trees in 2004, except treatment at the base of 2-year-old wood was compared to treatment at the base of 1-year-old wood. Treating the base of 1-year-old wood reduced growth to a greater degree than comparable treatment at the base of 2-year-old wood. For the 1- and 2-year-old-wood treatments, the number of laterals produced from the 1-year-old wood was reduced 42% and 17%, and total shoot growth from 1-year-old wood was reduced by 49% and 31%, respectively.

Water Conditioner Adjuvant and Fertilizer Formulation Effect on Micronutrient-Glyphosate Tank Mixtures

Abstract Tank-mixing foliar micronutrient fertilizers with glyphosate may reduce weed control because of antagonistic cations present in the spray solution. This research was conducted (1) to quantify the antagonism caused by various formulations of copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), and zinc (Zn), and (2) to determine the extent that water conditioner adjuvants may prevent the antagonism from occurring. Most formulations of copper, iron, manganese, and zinc antagonized glyphosate efficacy on giant foxtail and velvetleaf. Formulations containing EDTA, HEDTA, or flavonol were the least antagonistic; those containing the sulfate salt or a lignosulfonic acid chelate were the most antagonistic. Tank mixtures including the adjuvant NT2 overcame the antagonism more often than those containing ammonium sulfate (AMS) or CANG3. Two micronutrient blends, one with (MC) and one without (MS) the chelates citric acid and EDTA, both reduced glyphosate efficacy on giant foxtail and velvetleaf. The addition of AMS or NT to these blends increased velvetleaf control, but neither adjuvant overcame the antagonism.

Influence of Adjuvants on Weed Control from Tribenuron

Abstract Tribenuron is a slow acting sulfonylurea herbicide that becomes more soluble as spray solution pH increases. Data from field research show differences in adjuvant enhancement of tribenuron. The most effective adjuvants with tribenuron were methylated seed oil and basic pH blend adjuvants, but the greatest activity occurred when applied together. The order of tribenuron enhancement from adjuvants was: methylated seed oil &amp; basic pH blend&amp;gt;methylated seed oil=basic pH blend&amp;gt;crop oil concentrate=nonionic surfactant &amp; organosilicone&amp;gt;nonionic surfactant=nonionic surfactant&amp;water conditioner&amp;gt;nonionic surfactant&amp;organosilicone. Methylated seed oil &amp; basic pH blend adjuvant did not entirely overcome tribenuron antagonism of quizalofop. Tribenuron, applied as a soluble granule (SG) formulation and having properties to increase spray solution pH, provided similar weed control at a reduced rate as compared to the commercial extruded paste (XP) formulation of tribenuron. Limited research suggests that applying adjuvants on an area basis provides greater adjuvant enhancement than if applied on a percent volume basis. This would be especially important as spray volume decreases. These results generally support the concept that herbicide solubilization and absorption are necessary to maximize foliar activity.

Prohexadione-calcium Suppression of Apple Tree Shoot Growth as Affected by Spray Additives

Technical grade prohexadione-calcium (93.2% a.i. P-Ca) applied to `Fuji'/M.9 trees in three applications in deionized water reduced shoot growth by 25%, but the addition of (NH4)2SO4 to P-Ca suppressed shoot growth by 47%. If P-Ca was mixed in well water (high in calcium salts), P-Ca did not suppress shoot growth at all. The commercially formulated prohexadione-calcium [Apogee: 27.5% P-Ca + 56.1% (NH4)2SO4 + 16.4% other proprietary additives] + Regulaid in well water (high calcium) was not as effective (reduced growth by 30%) as when additional (NH4)2SO4 was added (reduced growth by 53%), and if CaCl2 (used to control corking) was tank mixed with Apogee + Regulaid, the Ca++ interfered with the growth suppression of P-Ca. If (NH4)2SO4 was added at the same rate as CaCl2 (w/w), the Apogee growth suppression was completely restored (reduced growth by 50%). Choice (a commercial water conditioner that has (NH4)2SO4 in the formulation, among other ingredients) + Li-700, or (NH4)2SO4 + Silwet L-77, or (NH4)2SO4 + Silwet L-77 + Oil were among the most effective adjuvant combinations with Apogee. The addition of ethephon at 270 mg·L-1 improved the growth suppression of Apogee + (NH4)2SO4 + Regulaid. Solubor compromised the effectiveness of Apogee + Regulaid. Adjusting the pH of the Apogee + (NH4)2SO4+ Regulaid spray to either pH = 4 or pH = 9 did not affect efficacy. The combination of Apogee + (NH4)2SO4 + Regulaid caused increased fruit cracking of `Empire' fruit as compared to the control (7%), presumably due to increased absorption of P-Ca. Chemical names used: Prohexadione-calcium (P-Ca, 3-oxido-4-propionyl-5-oxo-3cyclohexenecarboxylate) formulated as BAS-125 (10% P-Ca); Apogee (27.5% P-Ca), or Technical 93.5% P-Ca); Regulaid (polyoxyethylenepolypropoxy-propanol, alkyl 2-ethoxethanol, and dihydroxy propane); Silwet L-77 (polyalkyleneoxide modified heptametyltrisiloxane, silicon surfactant), LI-700 (80%, phosphatidylcholine, methylacetic acid and alkyl polyoxyethylene ether); Superior Oil (Drexel Damoil 70-second delayed dormant spray oil); ethephon (2-chloroethyl phosphonic acid); Solubor (20.5%, Boron equivalent); captan (N-Trichloromethylthio-4-cyclohenene-1,2-dicarboximide).

Effect of Water Conditioners and Surfactants on Vegetative Growth Control and Fruit Cracking of `Empire' Apple Caused by Prohexadione-calcium

Three experiments were conducted on `Empire' apple (Malus ×domestica Borkh.) to evaluate the effects of hard water, calcium chloride (CaCl2), water conditioners, surfactants, and captan fungicide on the growth reduction and fruit cracking caused by prohexadione-calcium (PC). Two applications of 63 mg·L-1 PC provided season-long growth control in two studies. Adding a water conditioner to PC reduced shoot growth more than an application of PC in hard or soft water in one New York study. Ammonium sulfate (AMS) and Choice were equally effective water conditioners. PC provided no growth control of water sprouts and had no effect on fruit set or yield. PC applied at 250 mg·L-1 reduced fruit size. `Empire' fruit cracking and corking was severe, despite the use of only 63 mg·L-1 PC in two of the three experiments. This damage was exacerbated by the addition of a water conditioner, however AMS applied with a surfactant but without PC had little or no effect on either the severity or extent of fruit injury. In a third experiment, the addition of surfactants, CaCl2, or captan to 250 mg·L-1 PC plus a water conditioner had no effect on the severity of fruit damage. Fruit cracking caused by PC increased preharvest drop in two of three experiments, and increased postharvest rot in the Geneva, N.Y., experiment where fruit were stored prior to grading. Application of PC plus a water conditioner reduced estimated gross return per hectare for `Empire. We conclude that the fruit injury is caused by the formulated PC product itself under certain environmental conditions, and that this product should not be used on `Empire. Chemical name used: calcium 3-oxido-4-proprionyl-5-oxo-3-cyclohexine-carboxylate [prohexadione-calcium (PC)].

Effects of acids and additives on the susceptibility of human dentine to denaturation.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of a number of additives to acid conditioners at reducing the denaturation of dentine collagen. Dentine collagen is normally not very susceptible to trypsin attack. After denaturation, however, it becomes more susceptible to the action of trypsin. Slabs of human dentine were dipped in water or acidic conditioners (10% citric acid or 37% phosphoric acid) containing no additives, 5 or 10% NaCl, 3 or 6% ferric chloride or 50% hydroxyethylmethacrylate (HEMA) for 15 or 60 s, followed by rinsing. The slabs were then exposed to trypsin for 24 h to solubilize any denatured collagen. The solubilized collagen was hydrolysed to liberate hydroxyproline that was quantitated spectrophotometrically. The amount of hydroxyproline (HOP) liberated was indicative of the amount of dentine collagen that was denatured by the test solutions. The only additive that consistently reduced HOP release was 50% HEMA, and this only occurred in the 60 s exposure group. Thus, the use of salt additives to acidic conditioners has little protective effect.

Use of Salts, Anesthetics, and Polymers to Minimize Handling and Transport Mortality in Delta Smelt

Abstract We tested the effects of transport containers and transport water treatments on the survival of field-collected delta smelt Hypomesus transpacificus, a threatened osmerid endemic to the Sacramento–San Joaquin estuary in California. Use of cylindrical polyethylene bags instead of rectangular coolers as transport containers increased survival from 40.7 to 83.6% at 4 h postcollection, from 11.9 to 33.1 % at 48 h, and from 6.9 to 27.9% at 72 h. Addition of NovAqua, a commercial water conditioner containing polymers, to transport water of 8‰ NaCl significantly increased 72-h survival (54.8%) over that of the 8‰ NaCl control (27.9%). Survival of fish lightly anesthetized with MS-222 (tricaine methanesulfonate) during transport was intermediate between the NaCl and NaCl plus NovAqua treatments. Survival of delta smelt in the NaCl plus NovAqua treatment also improved from August through November, as fish increased in size and water temperature decreased. Improved survival of delta smelt treated with NovA...

95/01850 Meticulous research leads to top-quality physical water conditioners

95/01850 Meticulous research leads to top-quality physical water conditioners