Flush Toilets Research Articles

Childhood Housing Condition and Old Age Health Among Chinese: The Mediation Role of Adulthood Socioeconomic and Medical History.

Guided by the lifecourse perspective and social determinants of health framework, this study examined the association of childhood housing with old age health among Chinese and its midlife mediators. Respondents were middle-aged and older adults (aged 45+) from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (N = 12,842). They were asked about their childhood housing conditions (e.g., if their houses had clean water, water toilet, and electricity). Adulthood socioeconomic and medical history and middle- and old-age health were measured. Causal mediation analysis showed childhood better housing was directly associated with fewer depressive symptoms and better cognition in middle- and older-age, and indirectly through increasing education level. However, the proportion-mediated estimate had very wide confidence intervals. Our findings suggested the importance of broad infrastructure development and adult continuing education programs among those who grew up in poor housing conditions to promote mental health in older age.

The Nexus Between Flush Toilet Use and Off‐Farm Performance of Rural Households

The Nexus Between Flush Toilet Use and Off‐Farm Performance of Rural Households

Surveillance of public health pathogens in Lagos wastewater canals: a cross-sectional study

BackgroundWastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) is already being adopted for the surveillance of health conditions of communities and shows great potential for the monitoring of infectious pathogens of public health importance. There is however paucity of robust data to support extensive WBE in Nigeria. This study evaluated the prevalence of clinically relevant infectious pathogens and provided antimicrobial resistance profiles of bacteria pathogens in wastewater canals in Lagos State at a single point in time.MethodsThis is a cross-sectional survey of wastewater canals in 20 Local Government Areas (LGAs) in Lagos State for detection of bacteria pathogens of public health importance including non-tuberculous mycobacteria and SARS-Cov-2 virus using cultural analysis and conventional Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) techniques. Descriptive epidemiological survey of communities around the canals was done using questionnaires to assess exposure pathways. Statistical analysis was done using SPSS version 27 while P value of < 0.05 was considered as significant.ResultsThree thousand and fifty-four (3054) questionnaires were administered to 1215 (39.8%) females and 1658 (54.3%) males in communities situated around 40 canals in 20 LGAs. Although majority (81.8%) reported using water closet toilet system and pit latrine (12.5%), a few of them admitted to open defaecation [101 (3.3%)] while 299 (9.8%) engaged in open field waste disposal. SARS-CoV-2 was not detected from wastewater in this study. Two mycobacterial species that included Mycobacterium fortitium group (13, 32.5%) and Mycobacterium kansasii (11, 27.5%) were identified in 15 out of 20 LGAs sampled. A total of 123 bacteria pathogens were isolated across the 40 canals. Prominent enteropathogens isolated included Escheriachia coli (28.5%), Salmonella spp (16.3%), Vibro cholerae (10.6%) and Shigella spp (5.7%). Extended spectrum beta-lactamase genes were prominent (87.5%) in the wastewater samples with almost a half (42.5%) of the canals containing both SHV and CTX-M.ConclusionThis study highlights the presence of pathogens with potential to cause epidemic in wastewater canals in Lagos State and provides evidence to inform policy and strategies for wastewater monitoring and treatment. Further studies involving longitudinal monitoring of time-based variations is needed to identify trends in pathogen loads and AMR patterns over time.

Water source, latrine type, and rainfall are associated with detection of non-optimal and enteric bacteria in the vaginal microbiome: a prospective observational cohort study nested within a cluster randomized controlled trial

BackgroundLess than one-third of sub-Saharan Africans have access to improved water sources. In US, Indian, and African studies, Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is increased among women with poor water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH). We examined water source, sanitation (latrine type), and rainfall in relation to the vaginal microbiome (VMB).MethodsIn a cluster randomized controlled trial of menstrual cups and cash transfer, we measured the impact of cups on VMB via 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing in a subset of 436 adolescent girls. We analyzed how self-reported water source and latrine type at home related to VMB over 18-months, examining community state type I (CST-I, L. crispatus dominant) vs. other CST; alpha diversity; targeted taxa (coliform and other water-related pathogens); and non-targeted taxa via machine learning approaches. Mixed effects multivariable longitudinal models were adjusted for intervention arm, age, socioeconomic status, sexual activity, and cluster-level school WASH and rainfall (in millimeters).ResultsAdjusting for all covariates in all models: (1) the odds of CST-I were increased among participants with piped water (vs. pond), and decreased with traditional pit latrine vs. flush toilet. (2) Alpha diversity varied by water source and latrine type without consistent trends. (3) Coliform bacteria relative abundance (RA) was higher among participants with traditional pit or ventilated improved pit latrines vs. flush toilet, and higher among participants relying on stream vs. pond water. Streptococcus agalactiae RA was higher among participants with non-flush toilets, while Bacteroides fragilis RA was lower with non-flush toilets. (4) Key taxa from non-targeted analyses associated with water source and latrine type included typical vaginal bacteria, opportunistic pathogens, and urinary tract pathobionts. (6) Increased rainfall was associated with decreased odds of CST-I.Trial registrationClinicalTrials.gov NCT03051789, February 14, 2017.

An Assessment of Multipollutant Exposures Using Silicone Wristbands Among Bangladeshi Youth.

Residents of Bangladesh are exposed to numerous chemicals due to local industries, including dyeing mills, cotton mills, and the use of biomass in daily cooking. It is, therefore, important to characterize the exposome and work to identify risk factors of exposure. We used silicone wristband passive samplers to evaluate exposure to volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds in a sample of 40 children in the Araihazar upazila of Bangladesh. We used stepwise linear regression models to determine which demographic, exposure, diet, and socioeconomic factors best predict exposure to single chemicals and classes of chemicals. Male sex at birth was associated with a decrease in the number of chemicals detected above their median concentration (β = -2.42; 95%CI: -5.24, 0.399), as was ownership of a flush toilet (β = -3.26; 95%CI: -6.61, 0.097). Increased body mass index (β = 1.81; 95%CI: 0.587, 3.03), father's smoking (β = 2.74; 95%CI: -0.0113, 5.49), and father's employment in the garment industry (β = 3.14; 95%CI: 0.209, 6.07) were each associated with an increase in the average number of chemicals detected above their median concentration. The observed results motivate future evaluation with health outcomes of these exposures.

In-vitro and in-use efficacy of a rapid, targeted UVC decontamination system

Ultraviolet C (UVC) decontamination systems are used in healthcare to supplement manual cleaning. Systems typically target whole rooms with fixed, vertical bulbs. To evaluate the in-vitro and in-use efficacy of the novel device with emitters on articulating arms designed for rapid, targeted decontamination in a hospital room. Isolates of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) (∼106colony-forming units (cfu)), Klebsiella pneumoniae (∼106cfu) and Clostridioides difficile spores (∼105cfu) were inoculated on to stainless steel biological indicators (BIs) with low (0.3% BSA) and high (10% BSA/synthetic faeces) soiling. Bacteria were recovered from BIs following UVC decontamination, enumerated, and compared with controls. In-use efficacy was assessed by sampling aerobic colony counts (ACC) with contact plates. Sites were further sampled for C.difficile. Samples were taken before cleaning, after manual cleaning, and after UVC decontamination. Reductions of 2.97-4.87 and 0.53-3.63 log10cfu were demonstrated with MRSA and K.pneumoniae with low and high soiling, respectively. Efficacy against C.difficile was only observed in one location (1.12 log10) with low soiling, but not synthetic faeces. ACC were highest on the bed foot rail (75cfu/25cm2) and toilet flush (67cfu/25cm2). Bacteria persisted on 50% of surfaces after manual cleaning and 30% after UVC decontamination. C.difficile persisted on one surface. The system was effective for targeted disinfection and may be used for high-touch surfaces and equipment. The short cycle times allow operation in areas with minimal turnaround time such as operating theatres and anaesthetic rooms.

Private Sanitation and Psychosocial Health in Adolescent Girls

Abstract The relationship between access to private sanitation facilities at home and psychosocial development is documented among adolescents aged 12 to 22 in India and Ethiopia. Obtaining access to private sanitation (flush toilets or pit latrines in the household) is associated with significantly higher self-efficacy and self-esteem for adolescent girls but not boys. Associations are stronger for girls who lived in communities with higher overall access to private sanitation, consistent with the hypothesis that relative access may matter more for psychosocial development than absolute access. There was also a significant correlation with improved peer relations for girls in early (age 12 to 15) but not late (age 19 to 22) adolescence. However, there is no evidence that results are operating through improved physical health or parent relationships.

Comparative life cycle assessment of on-site sanitation systems using lagoons or drying beds for fecal sludge treatment in low-income tropical countries.

Environmental challenges in low-income countries, such as Haiti, persist due to inadequate sanitation infrastructure. This study assesses the environmental impacts of nine on-site sanitation systems to identify those with the least environmental impacts and explore improvement options. Nine scenarios were developed, each representing different systems for managing 1 ton of fecal sludge over 1 year. The 'Impact World + ' and 'IPCC 2013 GWP 100a' methods evaluated impacts on ecosystems, human health, and climate change. Data sources included interviews, weighing records, and scientific publications. Results show that Scenario 8 (Flush Toilet - Evacuation - Planted Drying Beds) is most impactful on health (1.17 × 10-2 DALY), while Scenario 1 (Composting Toilet - Evacuation - Unplanted Drying Beds) is least impactful (1.77 × 10-3 DALY). For ecosystem impacts, Scenario 2 (Container-based Toilet - Evacuation - Planted Drying Beds) is most impactful (3.81 × 103 PDF·m2·year), while Scenario 6 (VIP latrine - Evacuation - Lagoons) is least impactful (3.52 × 103 PDF·m2·year). Key hotspots include toilet paper, wood shavings, GHG emissions, and water use. The study recommends an integrated approach combining environmental life cycle assessment (LCA) with life cycle cost assessment and social LCA for sustainable decision-making on sanitation systems in low-income countries.

Innovative Energy Design for Energy Efficient Buildings - An Example from the Bullitt Center

In recent years, the extreme climate caused by global warming has brought serious consequences to the world. In order to alleviate the problem of global warming, many scholars have started to analyse energy-saving green buildings. Taking the Bullitt Center as an example, this paper illustrates the innovative applications of energy-efficient buildings in solar power generation, rainwater collection and utilization, toilet water conservation and resource utilization and room temperature regulation. It focuses on the differences in the use of solar power generation in winter and summer, the process of purification of rainwater into water, the comparison between composting toilets and vacuum toilets and the steps of regulating the room temperature by windows and ground-source heat pumps. This paper also talks about the limitations of these innovative applications. It could probably give reference to the subsequent construction of buildings, thus promoting energy saving and emission reduction in buildings and mitigating global warming.

Hierarchy Analysis of Water Demand Among Hotel Consumers for Water Appliances

The sustainable management of domestic water use is essential for China’s ongoing development. Despite its significance, public service water use, especially within the hotel industry, is frequently neglected. This industry not only accounts for substantial water usage, but it has also witnessed exponential growth over the past decade. In light of this, this study developed a survey on the water demand and behavior of hotel consumers and built a water consumption model to analyze the different characteristics of the total volume of water used by various water appliances. Furthermore, by dividing the hierarchical intervals of each water-use behavior, it identified the main water-saving target of each water appliance. The results showed that the daily water demand of each consumer in hotels ranged from 45 to 141 L/(person·d). Among the various water-use appliances, faucets had the highest proportion of excessive water use, reaching nearly 40%, which implies a relatively large potential for saving water. Additionally, showers were the next major contributors to water consumption, whereas the proportion of excessive water use for water closets was relatively small. Owing to different habits, there is also variability in the main groups of people targeted for water conservation across water appliances, with females having the largest potential for water consumption in hotels. The results of this study can provide greatvaluable insights for enhancing water-use efficiency in hotels and standardizing water management practices within the industry.

DEVELOPMENT OF EFFICIENT AND ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY SEPTIC TANKS

In many communities in Indonesia, there are still many areas where their homes do not have a toilet (water closet) that meets hygiene and health requirements. This is caused by many factors, including because there are still many people who live below the poverty line, both economically poor and poor in knowledge (human resources). Procurement of toilets (water closets) which also include a septic tank system with a minimum output that is environmentally friendly and of course cost efficient is very necessary to improve public health. Based on the description above, this research was created in order to provide procurement and development of efficient and environmentally friendly septic tanks. This research is very necessary because of the discovery of an efficient alternative material by using used drums which can be used as septic tanks in Lampung, but it has not deepened the issue of waste output that is safe for the environment. This research was carried out using a constructivist qualitative method with assistance from DIGILIB Digital Library &amp; OPAC UB sources. is at Brawijaya University Malang, where the author is registered as a student in the environmental science doctoral program at Brawijaya University Malang.

Synthesis and functional mechanism evaluation of novel polymer-graphene oxide-biochar nanocomposite for efficient removal of diethyl phthalate

Phthalates, categorized as a main constituent of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), are present in polymeric products. These substances can enter the environment through several pathways, including improper handling, which leads to their presence in toilet water, floor washings, surface runoff, and landfill leachate. This study focuses on the performance analysis of nanocomposite materials made of polymer (polypyrrole), quasi-metal (graphene oxide), and biochar (from palmyra seed) for the elimination of diethyl phthalates (DEP) from aqueous environments. Scanning electron microscope (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) were used to describe the nanocomposite characteristics. The experimental results supported a chemisorption process by agreeing well with the pseudo-second order. The Langmuir isotherm explained the DEP sorption data, which aligned to monolayer DEP adsorption on the nanocomposite surface. With a binding affinity of −13.36 (kcal/mol) and the highest docking score, Diethyl phthalates and graphene oxide interaction is validated. The produced nanocomposite is suggested as a possible alternative for the sorption of DEP. Future applications could benefit from the higher adsorption capacity, and environmental friendliness of nanocomposites.

Outstanding Potential for Treating Wastewater from Office Buildings Using Fixed Activated Sludge with Attached Growth Process

The application of fixed activated sludge with an attached growth process (FASAG) with optimal operating conditions (hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 7 h, dissolved oxygen (DO) of 6 mg/L, and alkalinity dosage of 7.14 mgCaCO3/mgN-NH4+) treats wastewater generated from office buildings to meet discharge requirements (as per the regulation in the nation where the study was conducted) with typical parameters such as pH of 6.87–7.56, chemical oxygen demand (COD) of 32–64 mg/L, suspended solids (SS) of 8–11 mg/L, N-NH4+ of 1–7 mg/L, and denitrification efficiency reaches 53%. In addition, the FASAG is an outstanding integration that makes both economic and environmental sense when applied in local wastewater treatment systems. In particular, this process combines aerobic and anoxic processes in a creation tank. This explains why this approach can save investment and operating costs, energy, and land funds. In office building regions, where land area is frequently limited, saving land funds presents numerous options to enhance the density of green cover. Furthermore, as a new aspect, investing in reusing wastewater after treatment to irrigate plants or flush toilets in office buildings contributes to a decrease in the quantity of wastewater released into the environment, saving water resources and supporting sustainable development.

Characterisation of blackwater from human transportation systems equipped with vacuum toilets and controlled emissions tanks and its impact on solid/liquid separation technologies

The first ever detailed characterisation of blackwater from human transportation systems equipped with vacuum toilets and Controlled Emissions Tanks (CET) revealed a stream that is very concentrated in salts and nutrients when compared to other blackwater sources. Escherichia Coli (E. coli) levels in the blackwater characterised were comparatively lower than the range reported for septic tanks, for example. Suspended solids were significantly lower than the levels found in pit latrines, but closely comparable to those reported for gravity toilets. The average COD of 3566 ± 2049 mg/L was typically lower than in pit latrines and gravity flush toilets. These findings then show that the characteristics of the blackwater from human transportation systems are directly impacted by a combination of the low flush vacuum toilets, storage in the CET, and different behaviour for passengers with increased usage for urination over defecation when compared to common uses of toilets. Such factors collectively dictate the nature of the blackwater and require that a solid/liquid separation technology for further processing is fundamentally robust in operation. The greater solids pulverisation, largely resulting from vacuum flushing combined with the storage environment, reduces the suitability of centrifugal and settling technologies whilst making filtration the most suitable option.

Women's toilet use behaviors and water use in a urine diversion squat pan toilet pilot

ABSTRACT Understanding user behavior is critical to the adoption of technology; however, there is a paucity of data related to gender-specific sanitation practices and water-use patterns in toilet use despite the global imperative to increase attention toward the needs of women and girls. This user-focused study sought to understand the role of women's behavior related to the urine diversion performance of a novel toilet design. Forty-one female users of urine diversion toilets installed in two shared bathroom sites in Coimbatore, India, were surveyed about their behavior during toilet use. About 32% of respondents reported behaviors that reduce urine separation efficiency in this system, including aiming urine directly into the hole of the squat pan instead of the ceramic surface (15%); facing backwards (12%); squatting only part way down (7%); and pouring water onto the pan while urinating (5%). Separately, 88% of respondents use available water to clean the floor around the toilet, a practice that may alter the relative volumes of generated blackwater and graywater. These findings may aid the design of future sanitation solutions. Most respondents did not identify the specific toilet design as different from conventional ones, suggesting that these behaviors may apply to broader use cases.

SANITASI RUMAH IBADAH (MASJID) DAN PERILAKU MARBOT MASJID DI KOTA TANJUNGPINANG

It is commonly found that the mosque’s sanitation problems still do not health requirements, for instance, prayer mats are not properly maintained, limited water supply, slippery mossy floor, the absence of water closet, inadequate ventilation and lighting system. The conducted preliminary survey showed that the sanitation condition of the mosque stayed under minimum standard such as scattered garbage in the ditch, inadequate quantity of covered bin, yellowish spots on the ceiling surface, etc. The purpose of this study is to portray the sanitation system of the observed mosques and the behavior of the mosques’ Marbots in Tanjungpinang City. This research is a descriptive survey by conducting observations and interviews, in accordance with Keputusan Menteri Kesehatan Number 288 Year 2003, with 184 of the number of the population, and the number of samples is 65 that were chosen using stratified random sampling technique. The results show that there were 65 (100%) mosques that met the requirement of the condition of the environment and the mosque’s utility, the sanitation system standard was fulfilled by 54 mosques (83,1%), and there were 5 marbots (7,7%) who had good behavior. Hence, it is necessary that the marbots of the mosques might improve their behavior related to the mosques’ sanitation.

Solar powered membrane bioreactor (MBR) treating wastewater for reuse at a hospital in Kampala, Uganda – Results of pilot-scale trials

A robust and cost-effective pilot solar-powered membrane bioreactor (MBR) with downstream granular activated carbon (GAC) filter hospital wastewater treatment was developed for the Lubaga hospital in Kampala, Uganda. The MBR-GAC pilot included a 25 m2 ultrafiltration (UF) module, a 100 kg GAC filter, 20 photovoltaic panels totaling 7 kWp and a 3.55 kWh supercapacitor energy storage unit to produce non-potable and reusable water for toilet flushing, cleaning and irrigation. The pilot operated with 43% clean energy autonomy with grid and diesel generator backup for power outages of more than 1 hour. The MBR pilot produced an average flux of 10–15 L m–2 h–1 with 50% total organic carbon (TOC) removal. The nitrification, denitrification and filtration tanks were separated to achieve a nitrification of 80% and denitrification of 20%. The removal of typical hospital pharmaceutical residues that could not be reduced by the MBR increased to approximately 90% after the downstream GAC filter was upgraded. The removal efficiency of the GAC decreased to approximately 25% at 4,290 bed volume (BV). The significant increase of 75% in the removal efficiency of diclofenac in the MBR was attributed to the acclimation of the activated sludge. The quality of the treated wastewater from the pilot plant was sufficient for reuse by irrigation of the hospital garden, toilet flushing and cleaning. Finally, the study discussed ways to optimize the design and operation of the plant. The pilot is scalable to be replicated elsewhere and adapted in an efficient and cost-effective manner in sub-Saharan countries in Africa.

The impact of COVID-19 national lockdowns on drug-resistant tuberculosis in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: A spatial analysis

PurposeWe sought to understand the impact of the initial COVID-19 mitigation strategies in 2020 on drug-resistant (DR) TB diagnoses in KwaZulu-Natal province (KZN), South Africa. MethodsWe compared the number, spatial distribution, and characteristics of DR TB diagnoses before and after the initial COVID-19 lockdown on March 26th, 2020. Information on DR TB diagnoses was collected from the CONTEXT prospective cohort study and municipality characteristics were collected from Statistics South Africa. We used Bayesian conditional autoregressive models and relative-risk surface maps to examine spatial correlates and patterns of DR TB notifications. ResultsBetween October 2018 and February 2022, there were 693 individuals diagnosed with DR TB in KZN, South Africa. The rate of diagnoses per year was 274 and 155 prior and after to the initial lockdowns, respectively, corresponding to a 43 % decrease in the notification rate of cases. Compared to cases diagnosed before the lockdown, cases diagnosed after were less likely to have a fuel source for heating, piped water, a flush toilet, or own a phone (p-values≤0.02). Changes in notifications were not homogenously distributed, with predominantly rural northeastern and southwestern municipalities having significantly greater relative-risks after the lockdown. ConclusionsWe found a reduction in the rate of DR TB diagnoses after the COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns and observed that individuals diagnosed after the lockdowns had worse living conditions, fewer household resources, and more adults living in their household compared to before the pandemic.

Comprehensive agricultural ecological effects of aeration on regenerated liquid fertilizer of mini flush toilet

The high concentration of organic waste liquid obtained from the mini flush pipeline discharge technology based on source separation has the potential for fertilizer utilization. However, there are concerns about the risk of secondary pollution. This study proposes the idea of aeration treatment for regenerated liquid fertilizers to induce beneficial changes in their material composition and properties. Initially, this study compares the characteristic changes in nitrogen transformation of liquid fertilizer through aeration treatment. Subsequently, it examines the effects of different types of liquid fertilizers on soil properties, plant physiology, and soil microbial communities. Finally, we elucidate the flow and distribution of nitrogen in soil, plants, and nitrogen-containing gas emissions in agricultural ecosystems through material flow accounting. The study found that aeration treatment can reduce the ammonia nitrogen ratio while increasing the proportions of nitrite nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen. The regenerated liquid fertilizer through aeration treatment not only significantly increased the chlorophyll, protein, and polysaccharide content of vegetable leaves (P < 0.05) but also reduced nitrate accumulation. Moreover, it can reduce the risk of soil nitrate nitrogen leaching and increase the diversity of soil bacterial communities, enhancing the ecological functions of bacteria involved in carbon and nitrogen cycling. Material flow accounting indicated that aeration treatment for liquid fertilizer could reduce gaseous nitrogen loss by 50.0 %, improve the nitrogen utilization efficiency of vegetables by 95.5 %, and enhance soil nitrogen retention by 11.4 %. Overall, the results show that aeration treatment can improve the agricultural utilization of liquid fertilizer and reduce the risk of secondary pollution, providing preliminary decision-making support for optimizing resource treatment strategies for mini-flush toilet fecal waste to realize the agricultural cycle.

Comparative life cycle assessment of excreta management systems through composting and biomethanization: Case of a low-income tropical country.

Low-income tropical regions, such as Haiti, grapple with environmental issues stemming from inadequate sanitation infrastructure for fecal sludge management. This study scrutinizes on-site sanitation systems in these regions, evaluating their environmental impacts and pinpointing improvement opportunities. The focus is specifically on systems integrating excreta valorization through composting and/or anaerobic digestion. Each system encompasses toilet access, evacuation, and sludge treatment. A comparative life cycle assessment was undertaken, with the functional unit managing one ton of excreta in Haiti over a year. Six scenarios representing autonomous sanitation systems were devised by combining three toilet types (container-based toilets (CBTs), ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrines, and flush toilets (WC)) with two sludge treatment processes (composting and biomethanization). Biodigester-based systems exhibited 1.05 times higher sanitary impacts and 1.03 times higher ecosystem impacts than those with composters. Among toilet types, CBTs had the lowest impacts, followed by VIP latrines, with WCs having the highest impacts. On average, WC scenarios were 3.85 times more impactful than VIP latrines and 4.04 times more impactful than those with CBTs regarding human health impact. Critical variables identified include the use of toilet paper, wood shavings, greenhouse gas emissions, and construction materials.