Wastewater Remediation Research Articles

Hydroxyl and sulfate radicals-based electrochemical advanced oxidation process for treating dye-bearing wastewater – a review

ABSTRACT Dye-bearing wastewater presents a substantial ecological risk. Consequently, there is a critical requirement for efficient treatment strategies. Electrochemical advanced oxidation processes (EAOPs) utilizing hydroxyl and sulfate radicals emerge as viable alternatives to degrade dye pollutants effectively. This review article emphasizes the implementation of EAOPs in the treatment of both synthetic and actual dye-bearing wastewater. The fundamentals, chemistry, and recent developments concerning hydroxyl radicals-based EAOP, including anodic oxidation, electro-Fenton, and sulfate radicals-based EAOP, have been thoroughly reviewed. Furthermore, the article explores the comparative effectiveness of the individual hydroxyl and sulfate radical systems as well as the integrated hydroxyl and sulfate radical systems within a singular electrochemical cell. It has been established that sulfate radicals demonstrate a higher oxidation potential, greater pH adaptability, and a longer half-life in comparison to hydroxyl radicals, making them efficient for dye degradation when assessed against anodic oxidation and electro-Fenton processes. Thus, EAOPs represent a promising technological approach for the remediation of dye-bearing wastewater.

Cloud point extraction of heavy metal ions for wastewater remediation: an equilibrium and kinetic study

Abstract Surfactants offer a promising alternative for the efficient and environmentally friendly removal of organic pollutants and toxic heavy metal ions from various media. Their high efficiency and environmental compatibility make them a valuable option for remediation efforts. This study focuses on the cloud point extraction (CPE) of ions from aqueous solutions using biodegradable nonionic surfactants combined with ionic surfactants instead of chelating agents. Phase diagrams of binary surfactant/water systems were first constructed. The effects of salt, inorganic contaminants, and ionic surfactants on the cloud point (Tc) were then investigated. At temperatures above the cloud point, two distinct phenomena were observed and monitored over time: phase separation and phase clarification. The kinetic process was studied using the Turbiscan Lab Expert. Extraction results were evaluated based on four responses: extraction yield (E%), residual concentrations of solute (Xs,w) and surfactant (Xt,w) in the dilute phase, and volume fraction of coacervate at equilibrium (Φ C). Empirical modelling gives a satisfactory agreement between experimental and calculated values. The capacity of CPE to simultaneously remove an organic pollutant and a toxic heavy metal was demonstrated.

Innovative Strategies for Tannery Wastewater Remediation with Sequential batch reactor and phycoremediation

<p style="line-height:150%;text-align:justify;"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-size:12.0pt;" lang="EN-IN">This research assessed the performance of combining Sequential Batch Reactor (SBR) and phycoremediation method used for tanning effluent. The SBR system obtained high removal efficiencies with Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)  is reduced by  85%, Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is reduced  by 80% as well as ammonia by more than 75%. Chromium and lead were dropped by 65% and 60% correspondingly after treatment. Following SBR process, inclusion of Chlorella vulgaris in the phycoremediation stage further improves the removal of pollutants achieving 95% COD and 92% BOD reductions. Heavy metal removal was enhanced with chromium and lead by reducing 85% each. Kinetic analysis indicated that ammonia and COD removal followed first-order kinetics with high model fit (R2=0.93 for COD; R2=0.91 for ammonia). Heavy metal removal using Chlorella vulgaris also conformed to first-order kinetics. A temporary increase in ammonia levels was observed due to nitrification inhibition during periods of high organic loads in the wastewater discharged from tanneries into rivers or lakes without treatment facilities such as oxidation ditches or stabilization ponds used in some cases. Finally, it can be concluded that an integrated SBR phycoremediation process shows very good potentialities with respect to good performances in treating wastewater efficiently.</span></p>

Electrochemically Coupled Anaerobic Membrane Bioreactor Facilitates Remediation of Microplastic-Containing Wastewater

Ubiquitous microplastics (MPs) severely affect the efficiency of anaerobic membrane bioreactors (AMBR) for wastewater treatment and energy recovery by inhibiting the metabolic activity of anaerobic microorganisms. The electrochemical system can not only accelerate waste metabolism but also improve microbial resistance by promoting interspecies electron transfer within the system, which has broad application potential in the remediation of MPs wastewater. This paper attempts to evaluate the effect of electrical stimulation on the efficiency of biological wastewater treatment processes containing MPs employing an electrochemical system coupled to an anaerobic membrane bioreactor (ECAMBR). The results showed that although MP exposure inhibited methanogenic performance, electrical stimulation effectively alleviated this inhibitory effect. Further analysis showed that microplastics increased cell damage and affected enzyme activity, but electrical stimulation could affect the stress response of microorganisms, leading to changes in their cell viability and enzyme activities. The 16S-rRNA sequencing indicated that the highest abundance of hydrolytic–acidogenic bacteria Firmicutes and Bacteroidota was found at the phylum level, whereas at the genus level, it was Christensenellaceae_R-7_group, and methanogens were dominated by Methylomonas, Methyloversatilis, and Methylobacter. Functional prediction analysis indicated that carbohydrate metabolism, amino acid metabolism, and energy metabolism were the dominant metabolic pathways and that electrical stimulation could enhance their activities. This study demonstrated the important role of electrochemical stimulation in the remediation of wastewater containing high concentrations of MPs.

Floating Amphiphilic Biomass-Based Material Obtained by Plasma Processing for Enhanced Wastewater Remediation

Floating Amphiphilic Biomass-Based Material Obtained by Plasma Processing for Enhanced Wastewater Remediation

Efficiency of three macrophyte species for wastewater remediation in Biskra region (Algeria)

Efficiency of three macrophyte species for wastewater remediation in Biskra region (Algeria)

Slaughterhouse wastewater remediation using carbonized sawdust followed by textile filtration

Slaughterhouse wastewater (SWW) is considered an industrial wastewater, which seriously harms the environment due to the high concentration of contaminants such as biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), and total suspended solids (TSS). Additionally, the wastewater from slaughterhouses contains harmful bacteria. This study used a lap-scale model to treat SWW from a local private slaughterhouse. The treatment process involves three stages: adsorption using activated carbon, which is derived from sawdust, followed by sedimentation, and finally, a slow sand filter with a modified layer of woven textile cotton. The first two steps were tested to obtain the ideal operation condition of the treatment system. After the final step of treatment, we evaluated the overall process using a modified slow sand filter (MSSF). We used a Jar test to determine the optimal dosage of activated carbon from sawdust (ACS). The monitored parameters were physicochemical, such as turbidity, total suspended solids (TSS), total dissolved solids (TDS), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total phosphorus (TP), and total nitrogen (TN). The bacteriological examination included both total coliform count (TCC) and fecal coliform count (FCC). The results of the jar test revealed that the optimal ACS dose was 2.0 g/l. After adjusting the contact time and pH levels for the adsorption process, we discovered that the ideal contact time was 100 min and the ideal pH level was 4.0. Finally, we evaluated the entire treatment system by applying the MSSF after the sedimentation process, and found that the removal efficiencies of turbidity, BOD, COD, TSS, TDS, TP, and TN were 97.14, 94.80, 91.80, 98.96, 81.17, 81.12, and 82.50%, respectively. This is in addition to the filter's ability to remove bacteria counts at a rate of up to 98.93 and 99.13% of TCC and FCC, respectively.

A hybrid system based on the combination of adsorption, electrocoagulation, and wetland treatment for the effective remediation of industrial wastewater from underground coal gasification (UCG)

The study verified the effectiveness of treating post-process underground coal gasification (UCG) wastewater, containing high loads of inorganic and organic pollutants, using constructed wetlands (CW) enhanced by hybrid adsorption and electrocoagulation (EC) techniques. Four different system configurations were tested: wetland, EC/wetland, adsorbent/wetland, and EC/adsorbent/wetland. Each experiment lasted 60 days. The feed and effluents from each treatment step were analysed for their basic physicochemical parameters such as metals and trace elements, phenols, sulphides, cyanides, total organic carbon (TOC), chemical oxygen demand (COD), biological oxygen demand (BOD), benzene, toluene, ethylene, xylene (BTEX), and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).Systems with electrocoagulation proved to be effective in the case of metal removal. The best results were obtained for Fe, Ni, Sb and As (up to 96%, 98%, 94% and 82% respectively). The systems were ineffective in removing Mn. All tested systems showed the greatest effectiveness in the treatment of wastewater from phenols, BTEX and CN (almost 100% removal). CWs without preliminary electrocoagulation showed practically 100% effectiveness in removing BTEX after 14 days of treatment. Electrocoagulation was particularly effective in reduction of large quantity of PAH compounds (from 1228 μg/l to below 0.050 μg/l). Effective toxicity reduction from V class to II class after 60 days in comparison with meeting the requirements contained in the Best Available Techniques (BAT) document, showed that all tested systems were favorable in terms of UCG wastewater treatment. A significant decrease in toxicity was observed in just 14 days (around 90% reduction of toxicity measured in TU values for systems without adsorbent and around 75% for systems with adsorbent). The wastewater were still toxic due to the formation of degradation intermediates of organic compounds (BTEX, PAHs, phenol compounds), despite a significant decrease in the concentration of contaminants, therefore toxicity assessment should be one of the evaluation criteria for industrial wastewater treatment.

Cobalt Chromate Nanoparticles Embedded in a Poly(vinylidene fluoride) Membrane for the Piezocatalytic Wastewater Remediation

Cobalt Chromate Nanoparticles Embedded in a Poly(vinylidene fluoride) Membrane for the Piezocatalytic Wastewater Remediation

DES-driven sustainable dual valorization of lignocellulose into carbon dots and porous biochar for effective wastewater remediation

Deep eutectic solvents (DES) are renowned for their effectiveness in deconstructing lignocellulose and extracting lignin, yet the challenges lie in lignin condensation and the disposal of the DES remnants after pretreatment. To overcome these issues, this work proposed a holistic strategy utilizing deep eutectic solvent (DES)-driven lignocellulose deconstruction to upgrade lignocellulose into nitrogen-doped carbon dots (CDs) and iron-decorated porous carbons, serving as photocatalysts and adsorbents, respectively. These nitrogen-doped CDs via the choline chloride/FeCl3 DES pretreatment exhibited abundant nitrogen/oxygen functional groups, enhancing photocatalytic activities and facilitating effective charge separation and transfer. The photocatalytic efficiency of the CDs on dyes reached 97 % under acidic conditions primarily, and free radical quenching experiments indicated that singlet oxygen was the dominant oxidant species. Moreover, the adsorption capabilities of Fe-decorated porous carbons for Congo red reached 2432.3 mg·g−1, surpassing most existing carbon materials. The adsorption mechanism was due to a synergistic effect including physical adsorption, coordination, hydrogen bonding, electrostatic, and π-π interactions. This study proposed a synergetic conversion of DES and lignocellulose into functional carbon materials for wastewater remediation, which inspired the development of a green and cost-effective biorefinery.

Polydopamine-incorporated MOF membrane with hydrophilicity for effective oil/water separation and fouling-resistant model analysis and prediction

A large number of oil spills and oily wastewater are discharged, in the modern industrial production process, resulting in serious water pollution. Oily wastewater can be extremely harmful to ecosystems and human health. Oil-water separation has become a major challenge at present, and membrane separation has aroused more and more concern in recent years due to its high economic efficiency. This paper fabricated PES filtration membranes using the novel nanoparticlesbased on both metal–organic frameworks-5 (MOF-5) and polydopamine (PDA) layers as dopants, and then adequately explored the porosity, morphology, separation, hydrophilicity, and fouling-resistant performance of the resultant membranes. In addition, the prepared membranes were used for oil–water separation, including soybean-in-water, petroleum ether-in-water, and gasoline-in-water emulsions. MOF@PDA membranes exhibit high separation efficiency of up to 99.8%. Subsequently, membrane fouling mechanisms were investigated using the Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (XDLVO) theory, and the molecular mode of interaction with the three oil–water emulsions with the membrane was compared. Newly prepared MOF@PDA membranes have better stability, fouling-resistant, and self-cleaning properties. Finally, an optimal machine learning model for oil–water separation efficiency was developed with a high prediction accuracy of 98%. The obtained results indicate that mixed matrix membranes exhibit excellent oil–water separation performance, demonstrating great application prospects in the remediation of oily wastewater.

Sustainable remediation of piggery wastewater using a novel mixotrophic Chlorella sorokiniana Cbeo for high value biomass production

Piggery wastewater (PW) contains high density of organic carbon (COD), nitrogen (NH4+-N and TN) and phosphorous (TP), which are essential nutrients for microalgae growth. This work was attempted to use a newly isolate Chlorella sorokiniana Cbeo for recovery these compounds into its biomass via mixotrophic cultivation. Critical factors including level of ammonia, C/N ratio, pH, light intensity, sterilized/unsterilized media, and indoor/outdoor cultivations affecting biomass production and nutrients removal efficiencies were investigated. Data revealed that C. sorokiniana Cbeo achieved the optimal growth in the unsterilized medium at NH4+-N concentration, C/N ratio, initial pH, and light intensity of 250mg/L, 10/1, 7, and 150 μmol/m2/s, respectively. Under the optimal conditions, dry cell weight (DCW) reached the maximal level of 4.30g/L, which was slightly higher than 4.14g/L determined for the sterilized medium. In 30 L-scale photobioreactor, C. sorokiniana Cbeo grown under indoor and outdoor achieved DCW of 3.61 and 3.19g/L, respectively. COD, NH4+-N, TN, TP removal efficiencies for both conditions were determined as 91.9–96.7, 96.6–99.7, 96.2–96.4, and 98.2–100%, respectively. The C. sorokiniana Cbeo biomass contained 14–27% lipid, 25–32% carbohydrate, 44–48% protein, and 0.25–0.97% lutein. Interestingly, α-Linolenic acid (C18:3n3) was 19.84 –27.0% of the total fatty acids. C. sorokiniana Cbeo is the promising algal strain for development of a sustainable biorefinery of PW.

Efficient activation of peroxyacetic acid by cobalt-iron alloy/oxide heterojunctions anchored in defect-rich biochar for pesticide degradation in water: Unravelling the radical-unradical mechanism

The activation processes of peracetic acid (PAA-AOPs) have garnered significant attention in wastewater treatment. In this study, an amorphous carbon-modified bimetallic CoFe alloy/oxide catalyst (CoFe@DBCx-y, where x represents biomass mass and y represents pyrolysis temperature) was developed to activate PAA for the degradation of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs). Due to the size effect, biochar dynamically regulates the particle size of metal species, which is influenced by the pyrolysis temperature. Among these systems, the CoFeDBC2.0–700/PAA oxidation system effectively removed 95.7 % of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), exhibiting a kinetic constant 1.7 times higher than that of the Nano/PAA system. Furthermore, quenching experiments and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) analysis revealed that high-valent metal oxides (MIV = O) and singlet oxygen (1O2) are the primary active species responsible for the removal of 2,4-D, whereas organic radicals (RO·) and hydroxyl radicals (·OH) play a secondary role. Electrochemical and Raman spectroscopy tests revealed the formation of a metastable surface complex (≡Co(III)–OO(O)CCH3) between PAA and the catalyst, which acted as an intermediate oxidant to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) through a chain reaction. Carbon defects in the biochar functioned as an electron source, continuously replenishing the electrons consumed in the reaction and facilitating the valence cycling between Co and Fe. This study provides new insights into the remediation of pesticide-contaminated wastewater using PAA-AOPs with heterogeneous bimetallic carbon-based catalysts.

Graphitic carbon nitride nanosheets decorated with HAp@Bi2S3 core–shell nanorods: Dual S-scheme 1D/2D heterojunction for environmental and hydrogen production solutions

By combining different semiconductors, scientists have developed innovative materials capable of converting solar energy into useful forms of energy or driving chemical reactions that clean up pollutants. These materials offer a promising path to combat global environmental and energy challenges. In this study, HAp@Bi2S3 core–shell structures were synthesized using a facile microemulsion technique, and then loaded onto graphitic carbon nitride via a hydrothermal method to create an advanced HAp@Bi2S3/g-C3N4 dual S-scheme heterojunction. The engineered heterojunction exhibited enhanced hydrogen production and visible light photocatalytic oxidation of metronidazole. The improved photocatalytic efficiency was attributed to the core–shell structure of HAp@Bi2S3 along with the formation of a dual S-scheme heterojunction in HAp@Bi2S3/g-C3N4. As a result, the novel dual S-scheme HAp@Bi2S3/g-C3N4 heterojunction demonstrated a significantly higher hydrogen production rate, ca. 20 times higher than that of hydroxyapatite (HAp), 11 times higher than Bi2S3, and 5 times higher than the HAp@Bi2S3. This research introduces a novel approach to crafting dual S-scheme heterojunctions based on Bi2S3, which enables swift electron transfer across heterojunction interfaces, thereby enlarged possibility windows to sustainable hydrogen production and wastewater remediation technologies.

Preparation and investigation of physicochemical properties of g-C3N4/LaCoO3 heterostructure for photocatalytic dye degradation

Photocatalytic decomposition of pollutant is the most optimal approach for the wastewater remediation. Nevertheless, the development of a catalyst that is both cost-effective and extraordinarily active remains a substantial challenge. The g-C3N4/LaCoO3 heterostructure were prepared by different weight percentages of g-C3N4 (15, 30, 45, 60, and 75 wt%). The g-C3N4 and LaCoO3 were exhibits hexagonal and rhombohedral crystal structure respectively. The g-C3N4/LaCoO3 heterostructure exhibits tiny particles were anchored over the coarse like structure. The g-C3N4/LaCoO3 heterostructure promote visible light harvest and inhibit charge carrier recombination than the bare LaCoO3 and g-C3N4 and which helps to enhance the organic pollutant elimination performances. The g-C3N4/LaCoO3 heterojunction exhibits superior methylene blue degradation when compared to bare LaCoO3 and g-C3N4. Furthermore, the composite of LaCoO3/g-C3N4–60 wt% exhibits higher photocatalytic activity and exceptional stability were observed under visible light irradiation.

Combining nonthermal N2 plasma with a denitrifying biofilm reactor for PFAS-contaminated wastewater remediation

Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), commonly known as ’forever chemicals,’ pose significant environmental threats to water bodies due to their persistence and toxicity. Traditional remediation methods are often ineffective or costly. In response, this study presents a novel two-step solution combining nonthermal nitrogen (N2) plasma degradation with a denitrifying biofilm reactor to treat PFAS-contaminated wastewater efficiently. Treatment by N2 plasma resulted into PFOA and PFDA degradation efficiencies up to 45% and 60%, respectively. The low cost of N2 gas makes N2 plasma more favorable (compared to e.g. Ar plasma) for practical applications. The biofilm reactor, inoculated with activated sludge and packed by expanded clay aggregates (ECA), could efficiently remove the inorganic nitrogen produced by N2 plasma. CH3COONa was utilized as a carbon source to supply energy for denitrifying bacteria. The total nitrogen (TN) removal efficiency was up to 90% at a C/N ratio of 4.0. Also, UV254 (40–50%), turbidity (80–90%) and COD (80–90%) were removed in the biofilm reactor. Due to the non-biodegradability of PFAS, their removal (initially up to 60–90%) in the biofilm reactor was attributed to ad- or absorption on sludge and ECA. The bioreactor offers a cost-effective solution to the issue of secondary inorganic nitrogen pollution caused by N2-containing plasma. This is beneficial for broadening the practical use of both N2 plasma and air plasma. The two-step process is not only applicable for treating PFAS-contaminated wastewater but can also be applied to various fields suitable for N2 and air plasma applications.

WS2-Assisted Electrochemical Activation of Peroxymonosulfate for Eliminating Organic Pollutant in Water

Advanced oxidation process based on heterogeneous activation of peroxymonosulfate (PMS) has received significant attention in wastewater remediation. Herein, a facile and effective electrochemical method was introduced in a tungsten sulfide (WS2)-activated PMS process for the removal of a typical azo dye Acid Orange 7 (AO7) in aqueous solution. It was found that the electrochemical activation could remarkably promote the removal of organic pollutants by coupling with WS2/PMS system. The elimination of AO7 in the electro-assisted WS2-activated PMS (E/WS2/PMS) system achieved 95.8% of AO7 removal in 30 min, with the optimal conditions of 1.0 g/L WS2, 1.0 mM PMS, current density of 1.0 mA/cm2 and initial pH of 6.5. Based on quenching experiments and EPR techniques, mechanistic studies confirmed that hydroxyl radical (•OH) and singlet oxygen (1O2) are the primary reactive oxygen species for the oxidation of pollutants. In addition, the influences of pH, WS2 dosage, PMS concentration, current density, common anions and humic acid on the AO7 removal are also investigated in detail. Furthermore, the system exhibited resistance to aqueous matrices, verifying the accepted applicability in real water (i.e., Yangtze River water and Shahu Lake water). In summary, this study demonstrates a green system for the effective removal of contaminants in water, holding significant implications for practical application.

Methanogenesis—General Principles and Application in Wastewater Remediation

The first discovery of methanogens led to the formation of a new domain of life known as Archaea. The Archaea domain exhibits properties vastly different from previously known Bacteria and Eucarya domains. However, for a certain multi-step process, a syntrophic relationship between organisms from all domains is needed. This process is called methanogenesis and is defined as the biological production of methane. Different methanogenic pathways prevail depending on substrate availability and the employed order of methanogenic Archaea. Most methanogens reduce carbon dioxide to methane with hydrogen through a hydrogenotrophic pathway. For hydrogen activation, a group of enzymes called hydrogenases is required. Regardless of the methanogenic pathway, electrons are carried between microorganisms by hydrogen. Naturally occurring processes, such as methanogenesis, can be engineered for industrial use. With the growth and emergence of new industries, the amount of produced industrial waste is an ever-growing environmental problem. For successful wastewater remediation, a syntrophic correlation between various microorganisms is needed. The composition of microorganisms depends on wastewater type, organic loading rates, anaerobic reactor design, pH, and temperature. The last step of anaerobic wastewater treatment is production of biomethane by methanogenesis, which is thought to be a cost-effective means of energy production for this renewable biogas.

Structural, Morphological, Optical and Vibrational Properties of a Novel Coral-Like Fibrous CuO Nanostructure Synthesized via Dropwise Precipitation for UV-light Induced Photocatalytic Wastewater Remediation on Aqueous R6G Dye

CuO is a well-known monoclinic structure with unique properties that is extensively investigated for sensor, energy storage, and optoelectronic applications. In this work, the CuO nanostructure was synthesized through facile precipitation by mixing the aqueous copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate with sodium hydroxide. The as-synthesized CuO was characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffractometry (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and UV–visible spectroscopy. A homogeneous growth of a narrow, fine coral-like fibrous morphology was observed on CuO under SEM imaging. The FTIR spectra reveal the existence of some dominant sharp bands in the lower wavenumber region that represent the Cu-O bonds. The high solubility of CuO in water confirms the formation of particles with nanoscale dimensions. CuO exhibits a strong optical absorption peak at 510 nm, and the band gap determined by Tauc's relation is 2.11 eV. CuO is capable of inducing photocatalytic degradation on R6G dye solutions under low-intensity UVC irradiation, which can serve as a future photocatalyst for wastewater treatment.

Exploring the Impact of Environmental Conditions and Bioreactors on Microalgae Growth and Applications

Microalgae and their bioproducts have diverse applications, including wastewater remediation, CO2 fixation, and the synthesis of nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals, and biofuels. However, the production of these organisms heavily relies upon environmental conditions, which can significantly impact growth. Furthermore, microalgae cultivation itself can be a source of economic and environmental concerns. Thus, microalgae growth systems have become a critical consideration for both research and industry, to bolster microalgae cultivation and address its accompanying issues. Both open and closed systems, such as raceway ponds and photobioreactors, respectively, are commonly used during the growth process but have their own advantages and drawbacks. However, for microalgae growth, photobioreactors may address most concerns as the system’s design lowers the risk of contamination and provides the ability to control the delivery of desired growth factors. To determine the appropriate system for targeted microalgae cultivation, it is crucial to determine factors such as the scale of cultivation and growth and productivity targets. Additionally, efficient usage of these growth systems and carefully selected incubation factors can aid in addressing some of the economic and environmental issues associated with microalgae production. This review will summarize the current applications of bioreactors in both research and industrial capacities and summarize growth and incubation factors for microalgae.