Waste Electrical And Electronic Equipment Research Articles

Critical success factors for circular economy in the waste electrical and electronic equipment sector in an emerging economy: Implications for stakeholders

Wastage from electrical and electronic hardware includes a huge range of unsafe and complex materials, which can cause major natural and health issues. A promising approach that can bring about change and help in addressing this wastage is the circular economy (CE). However, understanding how this approach can be successfully implemented when it comes to waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), has remained surprisingly nascent to date. Therefore, this paper contributes to a better understanding of CE implementation in the WEEE sector by exploring its critical success factors (CSFs) and identifying their causal relationships and hierarchy of importance. To achieve this, a systematic literature review (SLR) was conducted to identify and understand the CSFs that influence the implementation of CE that were subsequently refined based on industry practitioners’ inputs in Bangladesh via a structured survey. Then, the decision-making trial and evaluation laboratory approach integrated with intuitionistic fuzzy sets (IF-DEMATEL) was employed to understand their causal relationship and hierarchy of importance. A wide range of CSFs were identified, of which “Market Contenders” and “Formation of Cross-functional Teams” were found to be more prominent for the successful implementation of CE to address WEEE, and that “Global Standard” influences the majority of other CSFs, including “Skilled Manpower”, “Financial Sustainability”, “Consumer Awareness”, etc. The results of this study will help professionals and policymakers implement better e-waste management systems, which can lead to the development of eco-friendly businesses and innovative and flexible production systems.

Size-resolved characterization of particles >10 nm emitted to air during metal recycling

BackgroundIn the strive towards a circular economy, metal waste recycling is a growing industry. During the recycling process, particulate matter containing toxic and allergenic metals will be emitted to the air causing unintentional exposure to humans and environment. ObjectiveIn this study detailed characterization of particle emissions and workplace exposures were performed, covering the full size range from 10 nm to 10 µm, during recycling of three different material flows: Waste of electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), metal scrap, and cables. MethodsBoth direct-reading instruments (minute resolution), and time-integrated filter measurements for gravimetric and chemical analysis were used. Additionally, optical sensors were applied and evaluated for long-term online monitoring of air quality in industrial settings. ResultsThe highest concentrations, in all particle sizes, and with respect both to particle mass and number, were measured in the WEEE flow, followed by the metal scrap flow. The number fraction of nanoparticles was high for all material flows (0.66–0.86). The most abundant metals were Fe, Al, Zn, Pb and Cu. Other elements of toxicological interest were Mn, Ba and Co. SignificanceThe large fraction of nanoparticles, and the fact that their chemical composition deviate from that of the coarse particles, raises questions that needs to be further addressed including toxicological implications, both for humans and for the environment.

The recycling potential of unregulated waste electrical and electronic equipment in China: Generation, economic value, and cost-benefit analysis

Despite the recent expansion in the list of regulated waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) (from 5 to 14), significant amounts of valuable-resource components can be recycled from the WEEE uncovered by the existing regulations. This study estimated the quantities of valuable-resource components that could be recycled from 11 categories of unregulated WEEE generated in China between 2010 and 2030 using the material flow analysis and Weibull distribution-based lifespan model. The generation of these unregulated WEEE is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 9%, increasing from 2.17 million tons in 2010 to 12.1 million tons in 2030. As a result, the total economic value from the valuable-resource components from these 11 categories of unregulated WEEE is expected to decrease first from 102 billion USD in 2010 to 68.5 billion USD in 2019; subsequently, it is expected to gradually increase to 203 billion USD by 2030. Household baking apparatuses and household electric fans are expected to contribute to 55−68% of the total weights of unregulated WEEE, while electronics are expected to be the most significant source of economic value (92.7−98.7%). In addition, recycling electronics is also expected to be preferred from the point of recycling profits. These results can help close the knowledge gap on the economic potential of recycling the unregulated WEEE and guide the development of future policies on recycling WEEE.

Non-isothermal kinetic study by TGA analysis of printed circuit boards and cotton stalk

Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) consisting of Printed circuit boards (PCBs) is a very hazardous materials with a complex chemical composition, making it difficult to reuse and recycle. Pyrolysis has thus far been demonstrated to be a viable alternative for energy and material recovery in the form of gas, solid char and especially liquid oil. In this study, the pyrolysis of PCB, CS (Cotton Stalk) and its different compositions are examined by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) using a non-isothermal technique. The thermal degradation was carried out for the temperature range 25–700 °C, in the presence of N2 atmosphere, with 50 ml/min flow rate using three different heating rates 5, 10 and 15° 30 C/min. The kinetic parameters such as apparent activation energy (Eα and lnA)were calculated using the Flynn Wall Ozawa (FWO) model-free method and the degradation mechanism was investigated by the Criado method, using a range from reaction order n = 1 to n = 3 for different samples. Within the two pyrolysis zones, the first zone of CS:PCB composition, showed slower reactions and better thermal stability of char compared to individual samples; whereas, in the second zone decreased activation energy is an indication of a faster reaction rate due to the presence of lignin in CS and alkali metals from the PCB. The experiment was carried out in a lab scale fixed bed reactor and the produced oil has been analysed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Co-pyrolysis facilitated the suppressed phenol, and phenolic compounds and the fixing of bromine in char by almost twice as much.

Eco-Friendly Electrowinning for Metals Recovery from Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE)

The amount of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) has been intensely increasing over the recent decades. In this view, the efficient recovery of metals from WEEE will allow a secure supply of raw materials and will contribute to a circular economy. Among many factors currently affecting the contribution of recycling, is the lack of suitable technologies for WEEE treatment in an environmentally friendly way. Current trends in eco-friendly technologies applied for gold, silver, copper, and tin recovery by electrowinning are reviewed in this paper. In addition, a case study on the perspectives of tin electrowinning has been evaluated. Tin can be present in rather high quantities in WEEE; moreover, its price is about three times higher than that for copper. The electrorecovery of tin has been carried out in cooperation with JSC “Elektronikos perdirbimo technologijos”. The eco-friendly process based on electrowinning from citric acid-containing leachates is elaborated. The citrate-based solutions have been chosen because citric acid is considered to be an environmentally friendly component. A high deposition rate and current efficiency have been achieved at a deposition potential −0.85 V at 60 °C. However, additional steps would be beneficial to diminish the interference of metals present in the scraps, such as Pb(II) and Cu(II), on tin electrorecovery.

Screening third-party collectors’ double asymmetric information in a dual-channel closed-loop supply chain

We investigate the third-party collector’s private information in a dual-channel closed-loop supply chain (DCLSC). The manufacturer sells her products through both an e-channel and retail channel and delegates the collection of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) to a third-party collector. The collector in a DCLSC has two types of private information: i.e., his collection effort level and collection ability. We develop principal-agent models to help the manufacturer design an information screening contract to obtain the collector’s asymmetric information. The results show that (i) an information screening contract can effectively prevent low ability collectors from misrepresenting their private information; (ii) although the increased awareness of environmental protection of consumers improves the manufacturer’s expected profit, it does not affect the retailer’s expected profit and the collector’s expected utility; (iii) the manufacturer’s expected profit enhances with the number of high ability collectors, whereas the expected utility of the high ability collector declines; (iv) the e-channel could not increase the total expected profit of the manufacturer and the retailer, but the channel transfers a part of the retailer’s expected profit to the manufacturer.

Study on the pyrolysis characteristics and reaction mechanisms of WLED packaging materials

The waste light-emitting diode (WLED) is a new type waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). The volume of waste WLEDs is huge and effective recycling and treatment have attracted widespread attention. However, it’s difficult to handle the WLED packaging materials in the recycling process because of the complex structure. Few studies have been conducted to analyze the efficient recycling of WLED packaging materials. In this study, the pyrolysis characteristics, pyrolysis kinetics and product composition of light-emitting diode (LED) packaging materials methyl phenyl silicon (MPS) were investigated using TG analysis, kinetic analysis, TG-FTIR analysis and Py-GC/MS analysis. Density functional theory (DFT) calculation was further combined to study the pyrolysis process of MPS. The TG analysis showed that the MPS pyrolysis was divided into two stages: 310–561 °C and 499–980 °C. The apparent activation energies of MPS pyrolysis were calculated by Flynn-Wall-Ozawa (FWO) and Kissinger-Akahira-Sunose (KAS) methods to be 144.68–149.76 kJ·mol−1 (Stage I) and 95.99–105.47 kJ·mol−1 (Stage II), respectively. The pyrolysis kinetic reaction model of MPS was determined by the Coats-Redfern (CR) method: D1 for Stage I, C2 for Stage II. According to the TG-FTIR and Py-GC/MS analysis results, 8 major gaseous products in the MPS pyrolysis process were identified, including CO2, benzene, HCl, biphenyl, chlorobenzene, styrene, ethylbenzene and chlorodimethylphenylsilane. Finally, the formation mechanism of different pyrolysis products was determined by DFT calculation. The pyrolysis characteristics and pyrolysis mechanism of WLED packaging materials may be helpful for the optimization of WLEDs pyrolysis recycling process and the regulation of pyrolysis products.

Reverse Chain for Electronic Waste to Promote Circular Economy in Brazil: A Survey on Electronics Manufacturers and Importers

Government requirements for the management of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) by electronics manufacturers and importers has raised some difficulties in structuring the reverse chain of WEEE in Brazil, notably due to the territorial extension of the country. The need to implement circular economy practices (CE) in the reverse chain of WEEE has been acknowledged as a key requirement for sustaining the international competitiveness of Brazilian companies. In this context, this study sets up to evaluate the flows of the reverse chain of WEEE, aiming to promote CE as well as its actions for the recycling, reuse, remanufacturing, and reduction of WEEE in Brazil. The study identifies and characterizes key manufacturing decisions for developing waste management capabilities, including the need for waste management responsibilities for installing and operating the collection points and transporting waste to recyclers. Likewise, the study highlights the relevance of the adoption of strategies for selling recycled materials to the secondary market, along with reusing and reducing the use of virgin materials. Initially, the managerial strategy is based on recycling and remanufacturing actions due to short-term monetary revaluation, in addition to the immediate resolution of the complex problem. It should be noted that the decision to outsource WEEE management does not exempt the manufacturer from reusing and reducing material consumption, an important contribution that must be taken into account in organizational practice, beyond the immediate resolution of the complex problem.

Compatibilized PC/ABS blends from solvent recycled PC and ABS polymers from electronic equipment waste

This study encompasses the development of high-performance PC/ABS blends utilizing recycled PC (r-PC) and recycled ABS (r-ABS) polymers from waste electric and electronic equipment (WEEE) fractions heavily contaminated by flame retardants (FRs). Upgrading of mechanical properties was facilitated by addition of virgin ABS and additives. In total three different WEEE fractions -containing high concentrations of bromine, chloride and phosphorous were purified from polymers other than PC and decontaminated from halogenated contaminants by dissolution-precipitation CreaSolv® Process. In two studied cases the WEEE fractions were optically pre-sorted for PC before purification and decontamination. Gas chromatography (GC-ECD) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analyses were performed to validate efficient removal of contaminants from r-PC.The targeted mechanical properties of polymers to upgrade are notched impact strength and elastic moduli. Upgrading was achieved by using the suitable compatibilizers, and, optionally by a chain extender. First, small-scale laboratory screening test series were conducted for three compatibilizers and different ABS polymers based on micro-compounding experiments. Upscaling test series based on the pre-screening data was then organized on a conventional bench scale twin-screw extruder.SEM microstructural characterizations of the blend morphology and fractured surfaces are done to correlate structure to the mechanical properties.Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) and Rheological Dynamic Analysis (RDA) and Gel permeation chromatography (GPC) provided some insight to the chain branching and molecular weight distribution of r-PC, respectively. Moreover, melt rheology and solid-state mechanical properties of the compatibilized r-PC/ABS blend were thoroughly investigated.Addition of virgin ABS polymer and a suitable compatibilizer enhance the properties of the recycled PC/ABS 60/40 blends towards virgin-like, allowing easily >55% r-PC content, or in favourable cases much higher than 75% recycled polymer content when applying significant concentration of recycled ABS from CreaSolv® together with some virgin ABS.

Product Lifecycle Information Flow in E-waste Handling: a Means to Increase Circularity?

Electronic waste (e-waste) is a growing waste stream. In Europe, e-waste is regulated by the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive. Each manufacturer or importer is responsible for the end-of-life (EoL) treatment of the equipment it handles, although this task is usually outsourced to producer responsibility organizations (PROs) that collect and treat the e-waste. The WEEE regime has been criticized for focusing on waste handling according to the traditional linear economy, while, in a circular economy, the goal is to eliminate waste. Information sharing helps improve circularity, and digital technology is seen as enabling information transparency and visibility in the supply chain. However, there is need for empirical studies demonstrating the use of information in supply chains to improve circularity. We conducted a case study of a manufacturer, including its subsidiaries and PROs in eight European countries, in which we investigated the product lifecycle information flow related to e-waste. Our findings indicate that product lifecycle information is available, but that it is provided for purposes other than e-waste handling. Actors are willing to share this information, but it is not regarded as useful for EoL treatment since the actors involved in EoL handling believe that using this information could lead to delays and poorer performance in e-waste handling. Our findings contradict the optimistic view of digital technology as improving circularity in circular supply chain management. The findings further give reason to question the implementation of digital technology to improve the product lifecycle information flow as long as the involved actors do not request this information.

Forecasting Waste Mobile Phone (WMP) Quantity and Evaluating the Potential Contribution to the Circular Economy: A Case Study of Turkey

Information and communication technology (ICT)-based products have a significant effect on increasing levels of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) or electronic waste (e-waste) due to their shorter lifespan as a result of rapid technological changes. Mobile phones are the most popular ICT products, and their market share is increasing gradually. Therefore, effective management of waste mobile phones (WMP) is sought as their recovery brings enormous economic and regulatory benefits. Forecasting the quantities of WMP and their recoverable material content generates valuable data for the related stakeholders in the circular economy (CE) in the design and management of their supply chain networks. This paper presents an approach to determining the WMP quantity for Turkey considering the system from sales to end-of-life (EOL) stages and the years between 2001 and 2035. The proposed model includes two main parts: estimation and forecasting. Firstly, the generated WMP quantity is estimated based on dynamic lifespan and sales using the Distribution Delay (DD) Method considering the years from 2001 to 2020. To select the most suitable model for future projection, seven different time series methods (e.g., Simple Exponential Smoothing, Holt’s, Logistics, Gompertz, Logarithmic, Bass, and ARIMA models) are considered to estimate the generated WMP. For the given data, the Holt’s Method is determined to be the best method to forecast the WMP quantities for the years from 2021 to 2035. In addition, waste materials amount and revenue potentials are estimated for the years from 2001 to 2035. The WMP for Turkey is expected to be approximately 11.5 million units and has a 52 million US$ revenue potential in 2035. The present study contributes to the literature, as it is the first holistic forecasting study on the quantification of WMPs in Turkey. Moreover, since WMPs include remarkable recovery potential in terms of CE, the data and findings of this study may help policymakers, governments, producers, consumers, and all stakeholders to establish effective e-waste management approaches.

Review on Solvents for Extraction of Metals from Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE)

Abstract: Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) are electrical and electronic gadgets known to have reached their end-of-life. They are made of printed circuit boards (PCBs) containing valuable metals like copper, gold, iron, lead nickel, silver, tin and zinc which can leach into the environment when landfilled. Current extraction methods for the recovery and recycling of metals from WEEE uses various solvents which are not selective, releases toxic gases and recover metals in a mixed form which requires further purification steps to recover individual metals. This paper has reviewed the use of inorganic acids, organic acids and designer solvents which do not release toxic gases when used for extraction of metals from WEEE. The results reveal that ionic liquids ae promising solvents for extracting metals.

Removal of Bromine from Polymer Blends with a Composition Simulating That Found in Waste Electric and Electronic Equipment through a Facile and Environmentally Friendly Method.

The increasing volume of plastics from waste electric and electronic equipment (WEEE) nowadays is of major concern since the various toxic compounds that are formed during their handling enhance the difficulties in recycling them. To overcome these problems, this work examines solvent extraction as a pretreatment method, prior to thermochemical recycling by pyrolysis. The aim is to remove bromine from some polymeric blends, with a composition that simulates WEEE, in the presence of tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA). Various solvents-isopropanol, ethanol and butanol-as well as several extraction times, were investigated in order to find the optimal choice. Before and after the pretreatment, blends were analysed by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) to estimate the total bromine content. Blends were pyrolyzed before and after the soxhlet extraction in order to evaluate the derived products. FTIR measurements of the polymeric blends before and after the soxhlet extraction showed that their structure was maintained. From the results obtained, it was indicated that the reduction of bromine was achieved in all cases tested and it was ~34% for blend I and ~46% and 42% for blend II when applying a 6 h soxhlet with isopropanol and ethanol, respectively. When using butanol bromine was completely eliminated, since the reduction reached almost 100%. The latter finding is of great importance, since the complete removal of bromine enables the recycling of pure plastics. Therefore, the main contribution of this work to the advancement of knowledge lies in the use of a solvent (i.e., butanol) which is environmentally friendly and with a high dissolving capacity in brominated compounds, which can be used in a pretreatment stage of plastic wastes before it is recycled by pyrolysis.

Modelización de un biorreactor discontinuo para lixiviar residuos eléctricos y electrónicos en Guayaquil, Ecuador

The use of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) has increased considerably worldwide, generating large amounts of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) of which only 17% is treated. The processing and extraction of metals from printed circuit boards (PCBs) of WEEE is done by a combination of physical and chemical methods, which become highly polluting. Therefore, it is necessary to formulate new eco-friendly strategies to prevent the impact of environmental pollution. The present research proposes to design a Batch bioreactor for the recovery of Cu from WEEE. For this purpose, equations of the modeling of a Batch bioreactor were coupled with real parameters and values taken from the city of Guayaquil and then designed using these values in the AutoCAD design software. A bioreactor was obtained with an optimal agitation considering 8 flat blades for mixing, also the appropriate material is stainless steel, and the optimum working temperature is 28°C. Applying these parameters, a Cu recovery of 96% is obtained in the city of Guayaquil.

Uncaptured mercury lost to the environment from waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) in scrap metal and municipal wastes

Mercury is a persistent toxic substance and once in the environment it can be transformed by bacteria into methylmercury which bioaccumulates in food chains. Prevention of mercury releases are key to protecting human health. Alternatives to mercury in products are now available and further phase-outs are underway as the Minamata Convention progresses toward its aims. In the European Union, mercury is a priority substance for safe removal from WEEE collected and treated. Despite mercury phase outs, WEEE items will continue to necessitate mercury depollution for many years to come. Capture of mercury-added product waste and their replacement products at source protects health, the environment and progresses the circular economy in terms of job creation and critical raw materials recovery. This paper presents an analysis of mercury-containing WEEE observed in scrap metal sites and kerbside waste collection in Ireland, these items did not undergo depollution and so the mercury contained within is lost to the environment. Mercury-added products found in metal scrap included desktop PCs, laptops, screens, LCD, LED and plasma screens and monitors, and assorted fluorescent and special lamps. It is estimated that a minimum of 17.89 kgs of mercury was released to the environment in 2018 due to inappropriate WEEE management from demolition, renovation, and home maintenance activities. Whilst the impact of the Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive in reducing mercury content in products is undoubtably positive, mercury emissions due to historic WEEE, professional WEEE, and batteries are not fully understood. The key loss of mercury was due to inappropriate gas discharge lamp handling at scrap metal sites and in municipal wastes. Protecting local environments from exposure and ensuring the safe recovery of mercury should be prioritised. The findings of this research highlight an urgent need to develop indicators of mercury-added product stocks and flows to optimise hazardous waste management in support of the circular economy. Improved material flow analysis with respect to mercury-added products are necessary for more accurate estimates in national inventories, thereby aiding global efforts to eliminate anthropogenic mercury releases especially from secondary release sources.

A comprehensive review of used electrical and electronic equipment management with a focus on the circular economy-based policy-making

In recent years, technological advancements have resulted in a proliferation of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE), accompanied by a rising massive amount of used electrical and electronic equipment (UEEE). Studies show that if transboundary flows of UEEE are carried out illegally, it can be one of the reasons for the increase in the volume of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) in developing countries, which necessitates urgent attention to the management of UEEE and WEEE. Toxic chemical components of WEEE can negatively impact ecosystems and human health and pose a severe threat to accomplishing sustainable development goals (SDGs). This review article provides an in-depth survey of UEEE and its differences from WEEE. UEEE is examined in detail to determine whether it is a potential toxic threat or a valuable source. If the transboundary flows of UEEE occur under legal regulations, it is a step toward a circular economy (CE), and the UEEE is recognized as a valuable resource. Otherwise, it is a potential threat to developing countries. Furthermore, the UEEE and WEEE are assessed from the perspective of international law, particularly the transboundary movement guidelines. In the following, the challenges in the transboundary flows of UEEE from developed to developing countries are mentioned. These challenges include a lack of inventory data, weak waste management policies and laws, expansion of the informal sector, and weak monitoring by law enforcement agencies for reliable environmental management. Finally, solutions to current challenges are presented. Undoubtedly, proper global management and legislation of UEEE and WEEE can help reduce the risks of e-waste and be the most effective way to achieve sustainable development goals.

Challenges and Opportunities for the Recovery of Critical Raw Materials from Electronic Waste: The Spanish Perspective

The path toward energy transition requires many metals, some of which are scarce in nature or their supply is controlled by a few countries. The European and Spanish situations are particularly vulnerable because of the scarcity of crucial geological mineral resources, especially those known as critical. In this context, the recovery of metals from waste electric and electronic equipment (WEEE) presents an important opportunity to partly alleviate this situation because this region produces most of the WEEE per capita. In this study, 43 different categories of EEE placed in the Spanish market between 2016 and 2021 were assessed, considering the composition of up to 57 elements, with 34 being critical. The results show the great opportunities for urban mining: 1.4 million tons of metals valued at USD 2.43 billion, representing 80% of the mass and 25% of the price of the primary extraction in Spain during that period. In addition, 20,000 tons corresponded to critical metals. However, the short life of EEE and the low traceability and low recovery of metals, especially critical and precious (94% and 87% of their values are lost, respectively), make it necessary to overcome major challenges to develop a new industry capable of moving toward a deeper circular economy.

Визначення ступеня небезпеки відходів гальванічних елементів (батарей)

Abstract. In recent decades, the world has faced a new environmental problem ‒ waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). Timely prevention of the formation of WEEE, minimization of their volume, reuse, recycling and recovery of resources ‒ all these issues require urgent appropriate solutions. Aim. Determining the degree of hazard of waste galvanic elements (batteries) and assigning this waste to the category of hazardous or safe according to national norms and rules. Materials and Methods. Waste galvanic cells (batteries) were the object of research. The samples were dissolved in concentrated nitric acid. The solutions were diluted with distilled water, filtered, and then the content of heavy metals was determined according to DSTU ISO 11885:2005 "Water quality. 33 elements were determined by the method of atomic emission spectrometry with inductively coupled plasma" (ISO 11885:1996, IDT) and GOST 30178-96 "Raw materials and food products. Atomic absorption method for determination of toxic elements". Determination of elements was carried out on an optical emission spectrometer with an inductively coupled plasma "SHIMADZU ICPE-9820". Research results. It was established that the content of lead, cadmium, mercury in waste galvanic elements (batteries) does not exceed the established hygienic standards for the soil ("Hygienic regulations of the permissible content of chemical substances in the soil", Order of the Ministry of Health of Ukraine No. 1595 dated 14.07.2020). Mercury: in 25 samples it was detected at a level that is lower than the sensitivity of the method, in two samples it is 2.25 times and 4.2 times less than the Limit Permissible Concentrations (LPC); in four ‒ 27-48.8 times less, in three ‒ 58-91 times less. The LPC of mercury in soil is 2.1 mg/kg. Cadmium: in 1 sample it was detected at a level that is lower than the sensitivity of the method, in 26 samples it is 2-7.5 times less than the LPC; in the 7th ‒ 9-30 times less. The LPC of cadmium in soil is 1.5 mg/kg. Lead: in 13 samples it was detected at a level that is lower than the sensitivity of the method, in 2 samples it was 3 times less than the LPC, in 6 samples it was 12-19.4 times less than the LPC, in 13 samples ‒ in 24-31 times less than LPC. Maximum permissible limit for lead in soil is 32 mg/kg. It was established that the examined waste samples of galvanic elements (batteries) can be classified as safe and processed and disposed of at the appropriate enterprise. Conclusions. The negative effect of WEEE components on the environment and, as a result, on human health is associated with the inevitable risk of their entering environmental objects due to improper handling of waste galvanic elements (batteries). In order to prevent and minimize the risk to the environment and the population, it is necessary to introduce selective sorting of WEEE components at the places of their generation or collection and sending them for processing, as well as to develop sanitary and epidemiological requirements for sorting processes and to carry out an examination of projects and installations for the utilization of such types of waste for compliance these requirements. Key Words: waste electrical and electronic equipment, waste batteries and accumulators, hazard assessment.

Catalytic Upgrading of Plastic Waste of Electric and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Pyrolysis Vapors over Si–Al Ash Pellets in a Two-Stage Reactor

This study investigated thermal cracking and catalytic upgrading of waste from electric and electronic equipment (WEEE) plastics on a semi-batch reactor coupled to a heated catalyst fixed bed (2-stage vapor cracking). The catalyst used is a Si–Al ash obtained from commercial activated carbon pellets treated with concentrated NaOH solution and calcination. The purpose of the study was to characterize the waste stream through its thermogravimetry analysis and pyrolysis products, study the effect of temperature (350–500 °C) and catalyst quantity (0.0–7.5 %.wt) on yields of reaction products, physical chemical properties, and chemical composition of bio-oil in order to understand and evaluate production of fuels and chemical feedstock by recycling of WEEE plastic through catalytic upgrading. Time-fractioned samples were taken in determined reaction times (15, 30, 45, and 60 min) to study the evolution of cracking reactions during experiment runs through changes to chemical composition (GC/MS). A comparison with other previous work is also presented to show similarities between different feedstocks using the same thermal unit. The results indicate composition of brominated acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), polycarbonate (PC), and high impact polystyrene (HIPS) for the WEEE plastic. The temperature of 350 °C produced better results when considering acid value but presented lower bio-oil yields (38%) and high gas yields (42%). Catalytic upgrading experiments revealed the increased presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) with an increase in viscosity of bio-oil, increase in char yield (from 11% to 24%), and decrease in gas yields (15% to 5%). Chemical composition showed presence of aromatic hydrocarbons such as styrene, methyl-styrene, and diphenyl-propane and nitrogenated compounds such as benzene-butane-nitrile, phenolic compounds, PAHs, and brominated compounds. WEEE plastic pyrolysis is a challenging subject due to contaminant presence and varying composition, and chemical composition evaluation according to reaction time provides interesting insights into the evolution of semi-batch pyrolysis/catalytic upgrading experiments. Standardization and reproducibility of the tool should be conducted to continue the evaluation of pyrolysis and catalytic upgrading of a wide range of feedstocks.

Different Strategies and Management between Countries towards Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) to the Realization of Sustainability

As one of the major waste streams towards the global environment, waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), also called e-waste, is a huge problem needed to solve. Different countries are using various types of strategies and management to ensure the WEEE is limited to the minimum effect on the environment. Using China and the United States as the typical countries to disclose the action different countries have taken towards the management of e-waste. The legislations of e-waste policies are implemented in many countries which the major e-waste produced countries are considered in this paper to form the comparison between those countries. Most countries in Europe are showing more attention towards the management of WEEE and countries such as India or Brazil are less focused on the recycling of WEEE. The major e-waste produced countries tend to have more moderate management to balance the economy and the environment.