Waste Electrical And Electronic Equipment Research Articles

Environmental effects of waste electrical and electronic equipment valorization in burkina faso

The valorization of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) has become a challenge for countries around the world, especially for developing countries like Burkina Faso. The main objective of this article is to analyze the environmental effects of WEEE valorization in Burkina Faso. To do this, the regime-switching model, developed by Lee (1978), based on the Heckman correction model, was used. The data used was collected from 414 actors in the WEEE sector in the three major cities of Burkina Faso, Ouagadougou, Koudougou, and Bobo Dioulasso. The analysis of the results shows that the methods of WEEE valorization in Burkina Faso pollute the air, soil and water. This pollution results in damages amounting to 242,752,192.6 CFA francs per year, which the sector's actors should include in their investment costs in the form of internalization costs. These costs amount to an average of 560,628.62 CFA francs per year and per actor. The WEEE sector could be improved with the implementation of certain economic policies. These policies include raising awareness among the population on WEEE management, training of stakeholders in the sector on the effective valorization of WEEE and the implementation of strict environmental standards to reduce environmental pollution due to poor WEEE valorization in Burkina Faso.

Leveraging Social Media to Gauge Public Opinion on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Management

In recent years, the rapid advancement of technology has led to a significant increase in the global use of electrical and electronic devices. This has resulted in a surge in the generation of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), a critical component of the complex solid waste management process. Since consumers play a major role in generating WEEE, understanding their perspectives on WEEE disposal is essential for developing effective management strategies. This study employs a combined approach utilizing quantitative methods, such as the analysis of 2,905,579 Twitter tweets collected from May 2019 to April 2022, and the fuzzy analytic hierarchy process (FAHP) technique, to identify appropriate end-of-life (EOL) options for WEEE. While there have been numerous studies on factors influencing consumer participation in WEEE disposal programs, no prior research has focused on identifying suitable EOL options for WEEE. A review of the literature revealed that factors such as ease of access to recycling centers, awareness, distrust in governments, financial incentives, charitable contributions, and concerns about data disclosure influence consumers’ decisions to participate in WEEE disposal programs. Additionally, four EOL options, namely re-use, remanufacturing, recycling, and disposal, were suggested for these products. Subsequently, the FAHP technique was used to examine the relationships between these options, and a suitable EOL option was recommended for each factor. The findings of this research can serve as a valuable tool in the WEEE management process, aiding in the development of effective strategies for WEEE disposal and contributing to a more sustainable approach to handling electronic waste.

Recovery of Plastics from WEEE through Green Sink–Float Treatment

Increasing demand for electrical and electronic equipment results in the generation of a rapidly growing waste stream, known by the acronym WEEE (waste electrical and electronic equipment). The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of green sink–float treatment in sorting plastic polymers typically found in WEEE (PP, ABS, PA6, PS, and PVC). Molasses, a by-product of sugar bio-refining, was added in various concentrations to water to form solutions at different densities. The methodology was initially tested on virgin polymers; later, it was applied to plastics from a WEEE treatment plant. The polymers were characterised through near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIRS) analyses; the detection of any additives and flame retardants was conducted using the sliding spark technology (SSS2) and scanning electron microscope (SEM—EDX). The results showed that, for plastics from WEEE, the recovery efficiency was 55.85% for PP in a solution of tap water while the remaining part of PP (44.15%) was recovered in a solution of water to which 90% molasses was added. Furthermore, 100% recovery efficiency was obtained for PS and 93.73% for ABS in a solution of tap water with the addition of 10% w/v molasses. A recovery efficiency of 100% was obtained for PVC and 100% for PA6 in a solution consisting solely of molasses.

Socially adaptive cognitive architecture for human-robot collaboration in industrial settings.

This paper introduces DAC-HRC, a novel cognitive architecture designed to optimize human-robot collaboration (HRC) in industrial settings, particularly within the context of Industry 4.0. The architecture is grounded in the Distributed Adaptive Control theory and the principles of joint intentionality and interdependence, which are key to effective HRC. Joint intentionality refers to the shared goals and mutual understanding between a human and a robot, while interdependence emphasizes the reliance on each other's capabilities to complete tasks. DAC-HRC is applied to a hybrid recycling plant for the disassembly and recycling of Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) devices. The architecture incorporates several cognitive modules operating at different timescales and abstraction levels, fostering adaptive collaboration that is personalized to each human user. The effectiveness of DAC-HRC is demonstrated through several pilot studies, showcasing functionalities such as turn-taking interaction, personalized error-handling mechanisms, adaptive safety measures, and gesture-based communication. These features enhance human-robot collaboration in the recycling plant by promoting real-time robot adaptation to human needs and preferences. The DAC-HRC architecture aims to contribute to the development of a new HRC paradigm by paving the way for more seamless and efficient collaboration in Industry 4.0 by relying on socially adept cognitive architectures.

Closing the loop of small WEEE – life cycle based approach for the evaluation of end-of-life strategies on the example of coffee machines

Waste of Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) is one of the fastest growing waste streams in Europe. Only 42.5 % of WEEE is collected and recycled with even lower rates for small WEEE, leading to significant environmental pressures. Applying end-of-life (EoL) strategies helps to ensure raw material availability, increases price resilience and reduces environmental impacts.This study analyses greenhouse gas (GHG) and cost saving potentials of EoL strategies (recycling, component reuse, remanufacturing and reuse), performed by manufacturers with own take-back systems. A life cycle assessment (LCA), including production, transport and EoL, is conducted to measure the GHG emissions, followed by a unit cost calculation. The results are compared with current practices of WEEE disposal, including WEEE in centralised collection and recycling system (WEEE recycling). As a representative for small EEE, the use case is based on a coffee machine.The LCA shows that manufacturers have great potential to reduce their products' emissions over the life cycle by taking back WEEE and implementing EoL strategies in-house. Thereby, GHG emissions can be reduced by 15–39 % over the life cycle compared to the WEEE recycling, whereby reuse and remanufacturing strategies have the highest reduction potential.Moreover, all analysed EoL strategies have the potential to reduce unit costs compared to linear production of a new machine. While the recycling scenario has the lowest cost savings at 7.7 % (new machine with recycled content), the reuse scenario can reduce unit costs by 66.5 % (tested and cleaned only) compared to the status quo.

Green and Sustainable Rare Earth Element Recycling and Reuse from End-of-Life Permanent Magnets

Rare earth elements (REEs) are key materials for the development of renewable energy devices such as high-power magnets for wind turbines, electric vehicles, or fuel cells for hydrogen generation, aiming to fulfill the objectives of the European Green Deal for a carbon-neutral economy. The increased demand for REEs and their criticality strongly require the improvement of their extraction technologies from primary resources and the enhancement of their circularity reuse rate from secondary resources. The aim of this paper is to focus attention on the possibilities offered by emerging methods such as microwave (MW) treatment and mechanochemistry in waste electric and electronic equipment (WEEE) processing and the reuse of end-of-life (EoL) magnets, directed toward the tailoring of rational REE material flows. The discussed investigation examples explore some key features of conventional and new methods for efficient, environmentally friendly, and scalable REE extraction and reuse, with the final goal of producing recycled NdFeB powders, with potential use in the redesign and fabrication of new REE-based magnets.

An alternative classification approach for waste electronic and electrical equipment (WEEE) recovery in low-income countries: case study in Burkina Faso.

Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) is defined as "urban mines" due to the various recoverable minerals they contain. However, current WEEE classification methods are mostly limited to their physical characteristics, focusing on collection, transport, and treatment purposes rather than on valorization. In the present study, our aim is to propose an alternative classification approach adapted for low-income countries for WEEE recovery that highlights their content of precious and valuable metals. A typology of WEEE was created based on WEEE generated in Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso). Principal component analysis (PCA) and the moving center technique (K-means) were used for the classification method. Ultimately, we have found that to improve the recovery of WEEE, they can be classified into three main groups: (i) a group of WEEE-containing batteries, (ii) a group of WEEE-containing valuable and precious metals, and finally, (iii) a group of WEEE made up of cathode ray tube televisions (CRT-TV) waste. The WEEE belonging to the second group are the ones that could generate higher economical values. This alternative classification approach will help investors and operators to better orient their valorization activities towards WEEE types that present the best precious metals recovery potential, maximizing their profits. On the other hand, decision-makers will find this classification useful for reorganizing the WEEE value chain.

Problems of recycling polystyrene plastics from waste electronic and electrical equipment (WEEE)

The problem of restoring the life cycle of polymers using the example of waste electronic and electrical equipment (WEEE) consists in carefully separating polymers by type and increasing the mechanical characteristics of polymers after their aging. It is shown that when separating polystyrene plastics based on impact-resistant polystyrene, the material also includes polyolefins, in particular, filled polypropylene. On this basis, a model system containing high-impact polystyrene and chalk-filled polypropylene was chosen. The effect of modifying additives such as SEBS, maleinated polystyrene and polypropylene on the physical and mechanical characteristics of impact-resistant polystyrene, including in the presence of filled polypropylene, has been studied. The influence of the composition of the composition on its thermal stability, as well as the thermal stability of industrial batches of secondary impact-resistant polystyrene from the WEEE has also been determined. As a result, using the example of a model system, ways of possible modifycation of the high-impact polystyrene from WEEE are shown in order to obtain a commercial product with improved characteristics.

Impacts of capacity redundancy and process flexibility on risk mitigation in e-waste recycling supply chain management

Recently Waste Electrical and Electronic equipment (WEEE) has become urgent environmental issues around the world. Generally, the e-waste recycling reverse supply chain (RSC) features higher uncertainties and complicated network structures, making the operation more difficult. Since the study on impact of hybrid uncertainty mitigation strategy in RSC is rare, we study the coupling effect of two strategies — capacity redundancy and process flexibility through the design of two hybrid strategies. A distributionally robust optimization model is proposed to handle both waste returns and resource yields uncertainties, and solved by a proposed Outer Approximation (OA) algorithm after an adaptive robust formulation. With numerical experiments based on real data implemented, our research finds conflict situation of using capacity redundancy and process flexibility strategies together. We also give guidelines for the use of hybrid strategies in RSC. We find that the optimal strategy changes as required service level increases. We also suggest moderate investment in capacity redundancy with long chain flexibility and resource centralization when applying hybrid strategy with optimal flexibility.

Utilization of Silica Filler as Reinforcement Material of Polylactic Acid (PLA) in 3D Printing Applications: Thermal, Rheological, and Mechanical Performance.

Glass was introduced as an additive to filaments used for the manufacturing of composite materials, employed by Additive Manufacturing applications. Glass accounts for a large waste electric and electronic equipment (WEEE) percentage, and its recovery and recycling can lead to the production of sustainable composite materials. In this work, poly(lactic acid) (PLA)/commercially available silicon oxide composite filaments were manufactured and their structural, thermal, rheological, and mechanical properties were assessed. Scanning Electron Microscopy confirmed the 1:2 ratio of silicon: oxygen, along with the relatively low adhesion between the filler and the matrix. Differential Scanning Calorimetry presented steady glass transition and melting temperatures of composites, whereas a crystallization temperature of 10% wt. and a crystallinity of 15% wt. composite slightly increased. Rheological analysis showcased that the viscosity of the composite filaments decreased compared to PLA (10-100 compared to 300-400 Pa·s), with a more shear-thinning behavior. Dynamic mechanical analysis exhibited increased elastic, flexural moduli, and flexural strength of composites (up to 16, 23, and 11%, respectively), whereas tensile strength and elongation decreased. The affordability of raw materials (with the future introduction of recycled ones) and the minimal processing steps can lead to the potential scaling up of the study.

Assessing the Potential Climate Impacts and Benefits of Waste Prevention and Management: A Case Study of Sweden

This study employs a life cycle perspective to analyze the carbon footprints of various waste streams, evaluating 52 cases across 26 types of household waste in Sweden, with a focus on waste prevention and management. It demonstrates that while recycling can reduce carbon emissions, prevention could significantly enhance these benefits, with savings ranging from −36.5 to −0.01 kg-CO2-eq per kg of waste. Notably, Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE), textiles, tires, residual household, and plastic waste are the top five fractions most amenable to prevention on a per mass basis. Further analysis, considering waste volumes, shows that targeted recycling of materials like WEEE, metals, and paper could account for over 80% of potential carbon savings. However, the majority of potential climate impact is attributed to the energy recovery of unsorted (mixed) waste, contributing to more than 90% of total impacts. Redirecting all mixed waste to recycling could triple carbon savings, but focusing on prevention could potentially increase benefits twenty-sevenfold, particularly for waste like WEEE, food, and textiles. This research provides a valuable tool for identifying key areas in waste management to optimize climate benefits and enhance public awareness. However, it advises using local data for precise planning due to inherent uncertainties.

Analysis of slag chemistry in WEEE smelting using experimental and modelling study of the “CuO0.5”-ZnO-FeO-FeO1.5-CaO-SiO2-AlO1.5 system in equilibrium with Cu metal

The variability of the composition of recycled copper-containing materials requires enhanced control and understanding of slag chemistry in the secondary pyrometallurgical processing, when compared to primary copper smelting. In the black copper route for recycling waste electronic and electrical equipment (WEEE), slags exhibit high concentrations of alumina and zinc oxide. The simplest system governing phase equilibria at the reducing smelting stage of the black copper process is “CuO0.5”-ZnO-FeO-FeO1.5-CaO-SiO2-AlO1.5. In the present study, slags within this system were equilibrated with liquid copper Cu and solid Fe metallic alloys, quenched and characterized by the Electron Probe X-ray Microanalysis (EPMA). The range of compositions was selected based on the information about the process available in literature. The study focused on the liquidus and proportion of solid spinel in the temperature range from 1100 to 1300 °C. Precise control of the proportion of solids can enhance the stability of refractory materials against corrosive slags while maintaining entrained metal droplets at reasonably low level. Additionally, experimental correlations between the solubility of copper in the oxide liquid and the partial pressure of oxygen were developed for the Zn-free slags in equilibrium with metallic copper at 1200 and 1300 °C. All experimental results were compared to thermodynamic predictions using recent models and FactSage® software. Uncertainties were identified to be used in further model improvement.

The potential impact of the new ‘Right to Repair’ rules on electrical and electronic equipment waste: A case study of the UK

Every year an estimated two million tonnes of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) are discarded by householders and companies in the United Kingdom (UK). While the UK has left the European Union (EU), its waste-related policies still mirror those of the EU, including the WEEE-related policies. Motivated by the recent introduction the so-called ‘Right to Repair’ policy for electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) across the EU and UK, this paper aims to demonstrate that, depending on the commitment and behavioural changes by the consumers and the government, the future of the WEEE management of the UK will vary. To this end, focusing on landfilled WEEE reduction we develop a generic system dynamics model and apply it to eleven WEEE categories. They depict the flow of EEE and WEEE representing the interaction among the stakeholders (e.g., consumers and producers of EEE) and relevant government regulations of the UK. Our four scenario analyses find that longer use of EEE and better WEEE collection seem to be effective in reducing landfilled WEEE, while more reuse and more recycling and recovery have negligible impacts, despite excluding the additional generation of landfilled WEEE as a result of recycling and recovery. Comparing with the business-as-usual scenario, one year longer EEE use and 10% more of WEEE collection could at maximum reduce landfilled WEEE by 14.05% of monitoring and control instruments and 93.93% of display equipment respectively. Backcasting scenario analyses reveal that significant efforts are required to reduce the targeted amounts.

Performance analysis and production of aromatics for ex situ catalytic pyrolysis of engineered WEEE

Ex situ catalytic pyrolysis of engineered waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) was conducted in a two-stage reactor using HZSM-5 catalyst. The effect of the catalysis temperature and the catalyst-to-feedstock (C/F) ratio on products yield, gas and oil composition, and products characterization were investigated in this study. Results indicated that lower reforming temperature and C/F ratio favored organic fractions production. The highest yield of organic fraction was obtained at a catalysis temperature of 450 °C and at a C/F ratio of 0.15, corresponding to 28.5 and 27.4 wt %, respectively. The highest selectivity toward aromatic hydrocarbons and the lowest TAN value of the organic fraction were obtained at a catalysis temperature of 450 °C and a C/F ratio of 0.2, respectively. Most of the alkali and transition metals and 23 % of Br remained in the solid residue after the catalytic pyrolysis of low-grade electronic waste (LGEW).

The hydrometallurgical recovery of critical and valuable elements from WEEE shredding dust: Process effectiveness in a life cycle perspective

Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) recycling stands as a crucial opportunity to get critical resources while managing a waste stream in accordance with the circular economy principles. Recently, a two-step hydrometallurgical process has been successfully investigated to treat the dust originating from the mechanical processing of WEEE. The best operating conditions selected in this study were used to further investigate the recovery of precious metals and critical elements, achieving extraction yields of approximately 77.7 % and 53.1 %, respectively; base metals (i.e. aluminum, zinc, copper, ..) were also leached from dust up to 96 %. A life cycle approach was also applied to preliminary assess and compare the potential environmental impact of the proposed process with respect to the manufacturing process of the virgin material. The analysis focused on standard environmental indicators (i.e. global warming potential, acidification, …), human toxicity and eco-toxicty and a set of five different characterisation models for abiotic depletion of resources. Four scenarios, differing for allocation criteria (mass/economic) and the possible recovery of metals along with REEs, were compared. Among the recovered products, the greates potential benefits were found in the case of rare earth elements, in the scenario considering the complete recovery of base and precious metals and performing an economic allocation. Impacts on abiotic depletion and toxicity account for the highest benefits from maerial recovery. Nevertheless, the recovery of sulphuric acid would allow a further reduction also in other impacts, strengthening the potential competitiveness of REE recovery against the manufacturing of virgin materials.

Effect of metals and brominated flame retardants on thermal degradation kinetics of waste printed circuit board

Waste printed circuit board (WPCB) is an indispensable component in any waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). A promising method for recycling WPCB is pyrolysis. To understand the effect of metals and brominated flame retardants (BFR) on WPCB pyrolysis, four samples were prepared, namely (a) raw WPCB (RW), (b) non-metallic WPCB (NM), (c) bromine extracted WPCB (RWBFR_ext) and (d) bromine and metal extracted WPCB (NMBFR_ext). The degradation kinetics study using the isoconversional methods: Friedman, Ozawa-Flynn-Wall (OFW), Kissinger–Akahira–Sunose (KAS), and Starink showed that the extraction of metals exhibited an increase in final degradation temperature and activation energy (Eα), and altered the reaction mechanism (f(a)) whereas, the reduction of BFR reduced initial degradation temperature. The identified kinetic triplets were verified using the reconstruction profiles. The parameters can be used in designing applications and developing an energy-efficient pyrolysis process.

Repair and Reuse or Recycle: What Is Best for Small WEEE in Australia?

The global and Australian trends indicate a steady increase in the generation of small waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), constituting 30% of global WEEE in 2019 with an expected 90% increase in Australia over the next 25 years. Given this fact, identifying the most suitable circular economy strategy is vital in managing this waste stream. Hence, followed by a review of the literature, a model was developed to assess the suitability of repair, reuse, and recycling of small electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) by considering the lifespan and products put on the market (PoM) as critical variables. Findings indicate that solely repairing and reusing products, without reducing PoM small EEE, minimally affects short-term waste reduction. A synergistic approach, combining high product reuse with reduced PoM small EEE, is essential to decrease small WEEE generation significantly. Regardless of lifespan changes, the study indicates a proportional relationship between small WEEE generation rates and PoM small EEE changes, emphasising the need for a holistic strategy. Considering this, within stewardship schemes, the primary focus should initially lie on repairing and repurposing small EEE, with the potential for expansion into recycling once sufficient infrastructure and achievable recovery goals are established. Original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) must shoulder substantial accountability, with a firm commitment to extended producer responsibility (EPR) even for historical products. The initial rollout could target four specific categories: toys, food preparation equipment, vacuum cleaners, and household tools, with the scope widening to encompass all categories following successful implementation.

Generation estimation and critical metals quantity assessment of retired mobile phones in Japan

The sustainable management of WEEE (Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment) can contribute to the defense of the ESBs (Earth System Boundaries) and achievement of the UN SDGs (United Nations Sustainable Development Goals). This work conducted reasonable generation estimation and critical metals quantity assessment of retired mobile phones in Japan with the sales&new method. The generation estimation is based on the statistical data including sales and quantity of the subscribers. The result shows that there are 31.20 million of mobile phones retired in 2021, comparing 32.83 million in 2008. The calculated lifetime have minimum and maximum value in 2008 and 2019, which is 3.36 and 7.58, comparing 6.42 in 2021. 17 metals are selected as critical metals, with which the quantity and dynamic are also calculated. The replacement from feature phones to smart phones demand less of 11 metals, which shows the critical metals savings leading by the technological innovation.

Strategies for Transitioning to Sustainable E-Waste Management Systems Globally, Regionally and Nationally

The quantity of electronic waste generated globally is rising rapidly as a result of advanced technology, over reliance, and the use of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) beyond comprehension. The rapid technological advancements has resulted in a reduced lifespan of EEE resulting in enormous amounts of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). It is well recognized that EEE contains complex metallic and non-metallic components that, if improperly managed, can seriously disrupt the environment and endanger the survival of life. The majority of industrialized nations possess advanced methods for managing e-waste, well-defined system boundaries, technological expertise, strict legislation, appropriate recycling facilities, and trade with emerging and impoverished countries. However, because of a number of issues and a dearth of pertinent policies, the situation in emerging nations is different. WEEE are handled in developing nations by using a variety of low-end methods, including product reuse, traditional landfill disposal, open burning, and rudimentary "backyard" recycling. The bulk of developing and less developed countries lack the necessary legislation, gaps in policy formulation, socioeconomic and cultural hurdles, technology, and treatment facilities. The main issues affecting Guyana's management include absence of legislation, safe options for treatment and disposal, and inadequate inventory of data. The strategic interventions that are essential for sustainable e-waste management include urban mining, embracing the concept of a circular economy, fortifying existing laws and regulations, investing in adequate facilities for handling all waste streams and coordination and cooperation among all of the key stakeholders.

Shared recycling model for waste electrical and electronic equipment based on the targeted responsibility system in the context of China

The formal recycling of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) has long faced collection difficulties owing to the inadequate recycling system and insufficient collection capacity under China’s fund-based recycling model. The government has introduced the recycling Target Responsibility System (TRS) to motivate producers to develop and share recycling systems, yet without clear incentive mechanisms. In this study, we provide a “1 + N” shared recycling model referring to the theory of the sharing economy, and we propose a credit mechanism with a deposit system and a penalty mechanism for dishonesty to constrain the opportunistic behavior of sharing. In addition, according to the TRS, we design a “reduction-penalty-subsidy” fund policy to incentivize producers and recyclers to achieve recycling targets. On this basis, we apply evolutionary game theory and system dynamics approach to analyze the collaborative mechanism of shared recycling and the incentive effect of the funding policy. Game analysis yields the evolution of shared recycling from the developing stage to the mature stage. The system simulation results indicate that the government’s “penalty” and “subsidy” strategies provide evident incentives for producers and recyclers, respectively, in the developing stage, whereas endogenous dynamics derived from economies of scale under market mechanisms promote the multi-agent collaborative implementation of shared recycling in the mature stage.