Waste Diversion Research Articles

Creating Revenue Out Of Green Waste: New Perspectives For Municipal Organic Waste Harvesting In Geelong, Australia

The diversion and recovery of organic waste are one of the most significant opportunities and challenges for reducing the environmental impacts of waste disposal internationally, as recognised by the United Nations’ SDG 12 that seeks to “ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns”. This issue is particularly pertinent to developed countries, like Australia, who have a high propensity for waste removal arising from their industrial and domestic use of products, materials and organic consumables. Through the use of GIS technology, using modelling software developed by the Global Methane Initiative, a series of simulations were undertaken to determine the viability of an anaerobic digester for the City of Greater Geelong (COGG), located in the State of Victoria (Australia), where organic materials constitute over 25% of all waste land-filled. Using only municipal organic waste, the modelling concluded that the COGG would generate between AU$6M-AU$11M/annum from the sale of biogas/methane. In addition to this revenue stream, COGG would have an Annual Projected Net Emissions Reductions of 3797 Mt. This paper further considers the development of a geospatial database to identify and locate concentrated organic waste resources in COGG, the design and development of a software tool to help quantify the production of food waste, and the development of an economic model to value the organic waste stream of COGG arising from the implementation of this proposal.

Investigating the effect of Aspergillus niger inoculated press mud (biofertilizer) on the potential of enhancing maize (Zea mays L.) yield, phosphorous use efficiency, and phosphorous agronomic efficiency

The world is facing tremendous challenges in tackling waste diversion from landfill to resource recovery. Conversion of organic waste into biofertilizer would reduce its environmental impacts by improving soil nutrient contents level and decreasing the requirements of mineral fertilizer (MF). Phosphorus (P) is the primary least available mineral in many cropping environments. The current study was aimed to isolate an efficient P-solubilizing fungi and to investigate its influence on total organic carbon (TOC), C/N ratio, total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorous (TP), total potassium (TK), and germination index (GI) of press mud to convert into biofertilizer. P from biofertilizer was then evaluated in different treatments in terms of maize biological yield, grain yield, P use efficiency (PUE), and P agronomic efficiency (PAE) in comparison to MF. Among seven P-solubilizing fungal isolates, A. niger was selected for its highest P-solubilizing activity in solid (1.5 cm) and liquid media (389 ug/ml) by solubilizing insoluble tricalcium phosphate (TCP). It was also found to mobilize zinc (Zn) from insoluble zinc oxide (ZnO). Bio-augmentation of press mud with A. niger shortens maturity period, improved nutrient contents and GI. Analysis of maize in different treatments revealed that P from mineral and biofertilizer enhanced crop yield. The competency of treatments was measured on higher PUE and PAE. Higher grain yield and harvest index (HI) were achieved in T5(100%Org+50%MF) containing a higher amount of P from mineral and biofertilizer. However, higher PUE and PAE were found in the order T6>T5>T2>T3>T4>T1, demonstrating the importance of integrated and balanced use of fertilizers.

Enhancement of Food Waste Management and Its Environmental Consequences

This paper assesses the potential environmental effects of the optimization of the kitchen waste management in Opole. The separate collection of kitchen waste is improved by distribution of separate collection kits consisting of an in-home bin and 10 L biodegradable bags. The surplus of collected kitchen waste is diverted from treatment in a mechanical-biological pretreatment (MBP) along with the residual waste to anaerobic digestion (AD) with the biowaste. This has positive effects on European and Polish goals, ambitions, and targets, such as (i) increasing the level of renewables in the primary energy supply, (ii) decreasing the level of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, (iii) increasing the level of preparation for reuse and recycling of municipal waste. The environmental effects of 1 ton additionally separately collected and treated kitchen waste are determined by using life cycle assessment. It was shown that in all selected impact categories (global warming potential, marine eutrophication potential, acidification potential, and ozone depletion potential) a clear environmental benefit can be achieved. These benefits are mainly caused by the avoided emissions of electricity and heat from the Polish production mix, which are substituted by energy generation from biogas combustion. Optimization of the waste management system by diversion of kitchen waste from mechanical-biological pretreatment to anaerobic digestion can lead to considerable saving of 448 kg CO2-eq/t of waste diverted. With an estimated optimization potential for the demonstration site of 40 kg/inh·year for the city of Opole, this would lead to 680,000 t CO2-eq savings per year for the whole of Poland. The sensitivity analysis showed that with a choice for cleaner energy sources the results would, albeit lower, show a significant savings potential.

Waste generation and carbon emissions of a hospital kitchen in the US: Potential for waste diversion and carbon reductions.

This study measured the total quantity and composition of waste generated in a large, New York City (NYC) hospital kitchen over a one-day period to assess the impact of potential waste diversion strategies in potential weight of waste diverted from landfill and reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. During the one-day audit, the hospital kitchen generated 1515.15 kg (1.7 US tons) of solid waste daily or 0.23 kg of total waste per meal served. Extrapolating to all meals served in 2019, the hospital kitchen generates over 442,067 kg (487 US tons) of waste and emits approximately 294,466 kg of CO2e annually from waste disposal. Most of this waste (85%, 376,247 kg or 415 US tons annually) is currently sent to landfill. With feasible changes, including increased recycling and moderate composting, this hospital could reduce landfilled waste by 205,245 kg (226 US tons, or 55% reduction) and reduce GHG emissions by 189,025 kg CO2e (64% reduction). Given NYC's ambitious waste and GHG emission reduction targets outlined in its OneNYC strategic plan, studies analyzing composition, emissions, and waste diversion potential of large institutions can be valuable in achieving city sustainability goals.

Assessing the Direct Resource Requirements of Urban Horticulture in the United Kingdom: A Citizen Science Approach

Interest in urban food production is growing; recent research has highlighted its potential to increase food security and reduce the environmental impact of food production. However, resource demands of urban horticulture are poorly understood. Here, we use allotment gardens in the United Kingdom to investigate resource demands of urban horticultural production across the country. We conducted a nationwide citizen science project using year-long allotment ‘diaries’ with allotment gardeners (n = 163). We analysed a variety of resources: transportation; time; water use; inputs of compost, manure and topsoil; and inputs of fertilisers, pest control and weed control. We found that, overall, an allotment demands 87 annual visits, travelling 139 km to and from the plot; 7 fertiliser additions; 4 pest control additions; and 2 weed control additions. On average, each kilogram of food produced used 0.4 hours’ labour, 16.9 L of water, 0.2 L of topsoil, 2.2 L of manure, and 1.9 L of compost. As interest in urban horticultural production grows, and policy makers build urban horticultural spaces into future sustainable cities, it is of key importance that this is carried out in a way that minimises resource requirements, and we demonstrate here that avenues exist for the diversion of municipal compostable waste and household-level city food waste for this purpose.

Poised for Change: University Students Are Positively Disposed toward Food Waste Diversion and Decrease Individual Food Waste after Programming.

Eaters (consumers of food) are responsible for 60% of waste along the food cycle in developed countries. Programs that target individual and household food waste behavior change are essential to addressing such waste. School cafeterias worldwide offer an opportune microcosm in which to educate on food and nutrition skills and change related behavior. No Scrap Left Behind, a cafeteria food waste diversion program, was developed, piloted, and assessed based on measures of both direct and indirect food waste behavior, and attitudes, knowledge, and emotions related to food waste. Participants had positive attitudes towards food waste reduction, engaged in food waste diversion actions, had some knowledge of the impacts of wasted food, and considered their actions important to waste reduction generally. Food waste per student was decreased by 28% over the course of the first year of programming (p = 0.000967), and by 26% in the following year when measured a week before and a week after programming occurred (p = 0.0218). Results indicate that students were poised for food behavior change and that related programming did impact behavior in the short term. Programming may, therefore, help improve student attitudes and skills to develop long-term change as well, although future research should explore this specifically. In comparison with other research on cafeteria programming, results suggest that food waste diversion programming can positively impact students’ dispositions and behaviors, and may be more effective when tailored to the specific population.

Quantification of solid waste management system efficiency using input–output indices

The assessment of solid waste management systems is vital for continued improvement in the efficiency of waste management systems (WMSs). Many studies have aimed to develop metrics that examine policy and system effectiveness, but there appears to be a lack of simple and comparable metrics to evaluate the WMS efficiency. This study introduces a set of novel waste diversion indicators, including a jurisdictionally comparable index known as diversion size indicator (DSI), and employs them to analyze WMSs in Canada. DSI increased in only a single province Nova Scotia during the 14-year study period. The DSI variability was largest for all Prairie Provinces, indicating that large efficiency changes in these province’s WMSs over the study period. Combining all proposed metrics into a single rank showed that Saskatchewan outperformed all other Canadian jurisdictions, balancing diversion rate goals well with cost efficiency. Findings indicate that Alberta and Ontario rank very low in diversion efficiency and tonnage hauled efficiency. Also, Nova Scotia, the DSI leader, ranks lowest in terms of costs per tonne handled. Data availability remains a large barrier to a complete evaluation of WMSs. Nonetheless, the proposed original metrics create a framework for creating comparable and easy to use metrics for waste management efficiency.

From pioneer to promotion: How can residential waste diversion non-profit organizations (NPOs) best co-evolve in modern China?

Against the background of China's policies to intensify efforts in residential municipal waste sorting, some non-profit organisations (NPOs) have shown that they can make a significant difference in changing residents’ behaviours. However, this is a very new policy and implementation context for schemes of tasks, facilities and responsibilities that previously did not exist – even the formal roles for community-level governance officers, NPOs and other stakeholders are still evolving. Here we use a SWOT-PEST analysis to analyse the current operating context of six pioneering NPOs over the last year, to extract generalisable learning to accelerate scaling up as China widens the policies. The results show that the NPOs benefit much from having or establishing a network with the grass-roots level community, and nurturing a positive interaction with all stakeholders: their ability to interface lowest-level government structures with the public was key. The government's support for NPOs in terms of finance or facilities was important, but introductions to stakeholders was crucial. Most NPOs struggled with growing too fast, and insufficient expertise in operational details (such as keeping facilities clean). To be sustainable, they needed more experience in communicating their core goals (e.g. environmental), in terms that the urban planners and funders would appreciate. Non-alignment with current government waste agenda was not seen.

Characterization and management status of household biodegradable waste in an upland city of Benguet, Philippines

An upland city of the Philippines is continuously battling against its garbage disposal, wherein biowaste makes up the significant fraction in its MSW with the residential area as the primary contributor. Due to its heterogeneity, very few studies focused on the analysis and characterization of biodegradables. This study aims to conduct a waste analysis of biodegradable generated among households as an initial approach for sustainable organic management options. Results showed that a household consisting of 3–9 members have biowaste per capita generation that ranges from 0.04 to 0.31 kg/day, with a weighted average of 0.1122 kg/day. A five-member household can generate an average 0.55 kg per day, in which, 46% is mostly food scrap, followed by kitchen waste-vegetables and fruits (41%), kitchen waste-raw meat and fish (4%) while yard/garden and wet papers comprise the 5% and 4%, respectively. The family size showed a positive relationship with household generation and a negative correlation to per capita generation. The study also revealed that 51% of the respondents do not divert their biowaste at the source. Hence, this research endeavor recommends the need of each household to have decentralized biological treatment as a practical mode of waste diversion and reduction.

Buyback centres in Cape Town: the key integration point between formal and informal sectors in the waste economy of the Western Cape

South Africa’s waste diversion rate from the landfills is low (11%) and leaves room for growth in the South African recycling industry to contribute to job creation, poverty alleviation, enterprise development and economic growth. The waste economy’s value chain is multi-layered with buyback centres (BBCs) as the point of convergence for informal and formal sector actors in the recycling economy. BBCs connect the informal sector actors of the recycling economy with the more formal activities. Despite this role, BBCs have not been a focus of research. This study investigated the facilitating role of BBCs as the link between the formal and informal sectors of the waste economy—using the City of Cape Town as a case study. A concurrent mixed-method design was chosen for this study. Fifty-three BBCs were surveyed in 2018. These BBCs employed 971 people and accepted material from approximately 5500 collectors, including an estimated 3000 waste pickers—supporting as many as 15,000 people. The BBCs collectively sold 17,100 tonnes recyclables in an average month, constituting about R25.7 million in material value and a monthly landfill airspace saving of 41,800 m3. BBCs facilitate informal livelihoods and contribute directly and indirectly to the formal waste economy. Two key areas for research were identified: the evolution and business models of BBCs and a holistic analysis of the waste management system and policies of cities such as Cape Town for policies to be more supportive and inclusive of BBCs.

Strength Properties and Sustainability of Recycled Plastic Tiles: Flammability, Water Absorption, and Chemical Tolerance

The cost of construction materials, as well as the natural resources needed to manufacture the materials in an enabling climate, is affecting the world's construction industry, which is expanding at an unprecedented pace. Plastic wastes are a significant environmental concern due to their widespread use, non-biodegradability, and contamination from incineration and landfill, recycling these wastes into tiles would be a significant benefit. This investigation's goal is to study the mechanical qualities of tiles made from PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate) wastes, fly ash, and river sand aggregates. PET wastes were added to other aggregates in various percentages of 100 percent, 90 percent, 70 percent, 50 percent, and 30 percent by weight. The assessment of physical and mechanical properties reveals that, in terms of material density, weight, and flammability resistance, the tiles containing 30% plastic waste outperforms the other proportion of waste. According to the results, this composite tile has a very low percent porosity value (2.9 - 0.11 percent) as compared to cement or ceramic tiles. In addition, the composite tile (PT1) with 30% PET and 35% fly ash and sand demonstrated decreased flammability with a linear burning rate of 7.68 mm/min and enhanced compressive strength of 11.07 N/ mm2. There was no significant difference in weight after soaked in different acid and base solutions for seven days. Finally, as tile products, PET plastic tiles have good strength, chemical tolerance, low flammability, low water absorption, and are environmentally friendly. This possibility would not only reduce the cost of construction materials, but it would also serve as a waste diversion, reducing the environmental impact of plastic waste disposal.

Referent group specificity: Optimizing normative feedback to increase residential recycling

Research has shown that messages containing descriptive normative feedback can induce behavior change in the direction of the norm. However, the literature is mixed regarding the relative influence of more specific referent groups. This study compared the effectiveness of social normative feedback at increasing waste diversion, across four referent groups varying in their degree of specificity. A sample of 1560 single-family households in California were randomly assigned to one of six possible conditions: specific normative feedback about their immediate neighbors, exemplary normative feedback about the best recyclers in their city, generic normative feedback about the other residents in their neighborhood, normative feedback about a statewide waste diversion target, information-only, or no-contact control. Households in the feedback conditions received a mailed personalized Home Waste and Recycling report comparing their diversion rate to an assigned referent group. Results showed that normative feedback increased diversion rates compared to the control conditions, but results did not show significant differences between the feedback conditions. Additional results showed that the treatment effects were driven primarily by changes among households that were below the norm in baseline diversion rates. Findings are discussed within the framework of the Focus Theory of Normative Conduct, and the implications for large-scale applications.

Air Pollutant Emission Rates for Dry Anaerobic Digestion and Composting of Organic Municipal Solid Waste.

Dry anaerobic digestion (AD) of organic municipal solid waste (MSW) followed by composting of the residual digestate is a waste diversion strategy that generates biogas and soil amendment products. The AD-composting process avoids methane (CH4) emissions from landfilling, but emissions of other greenhouse gases, odorous/toxic species, and reactive compounds can affect net climate and air quality impacts. In situ measurements of key sources at two large-scale industrial facilities in California were conducted to quantify pollutant emission rates across the AD-composting process. These measurements established a strong relationship between flared biogas ammonia (NH3) content and emitted nitrogen oxides (NOx), indicating that fuel NOx formation is significant and dominates over the thermal or prompt NOx pathways when biogas NH3 concentration exceeds ∼200 ppm. Composting is the largest source of CH4, carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions (∼60-70%), and dominate NH3, hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and volatile organic compounds (VOC) emissions (>90%). The high CH4 contribution to CO2-equivalent emissions demonstrates that composting can be an important CH4 source, which could be reduced with improved aeration. Controlling greenhouse gas and toxic/odorous emissions from composting offers the greatest mitigation opportunities for reducing the climate and air quality impacts of the AD-composting process.

Feasibility and Durability of Interlocks (Paving stones) from Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) Wastes

Managing plastics waste is a global challenge that challenges the health of our ecosystem due to their high rate of production and non-biodegradability. However, it is important to handle PWs properly to curtail the environmental emissions associated with their incineration and dumping into landfills. The world's building industry is influenced by looking at the expense of construction materials and the required raw materials to manufacture them with the supporting climate that is rising at an unprecedented pace. The recycling of plastic waste into new useful building construction products will be a great advantage In this analysis, the shredded PET waste gathered from the recycling center was heated to 230 0C and used as a binder for the complete substitution of cement with a river sand aggregate for the manufacture of polymer interlocking / paving stones. The physical characteristics and mechanical performance of the aggregate materials and PET polymer concrete (including their distribution of particle size, silt , clay and dust content, relative stiffness, water absorption, porosity, flexural and compressive strength) were tested on various PET waste: 100%, 90%, 70%, 50% and 30% sand mixing percentages. The results showed that the produced interlocks from 30% PET and 70% river sand (3:7) achieved higher density, flexural, and compressive strength than the other combination percentages. The least strength and porosity were exhibited by the polymer concrete produced with 100 % PET. The compressive strength of the PET polymer concrete produced with 30 % PET waste composition was higher than that of cement concrete at 28 days curing. Based on the test results, PET polymer concrete at 30 % PET replacement can be used for interlocking tiles / paving stones due to its strength, low water absorption, and eco-friendliness, especially in water-logged areas. This prospect of interlocking tile production using polyethylene terephthalate (PET) waste and sand would not only minimise the cost of building production, but will only act as a waste diversion to mitigate environmental emissions caused by plastic waste disposal.

Evaluation of Eutrophication Levels in Al-Najaf Al-Ashraf Lake, Iraq (Biological and Chemical study)

The present study was conducted because of rapidly increasing pollution in Al-Najaf lake, which is one of the significant shallow lakes of Iraq, lake facing tremendous pressure due to encroachments, discharge of untreated domestic and industrial waste, drainage water from cultivated orchards, dumping of solid waste and illegal diversion of water, and currently it still suffering from these problems and neglect, the lake could be important tourist and recreational place in Governorate if we could preserve it and remove the pollution sources. Study aimed to evaluation the eutrophication status, and plotted by (GIS). Eutrophication is a serious problem in lakes, awareness about the eutrophic status could help in providing a better understanding of the problem. this study conducted to assess temporal and spatial eutrophication index in AL-najaf lake. The eutrophication level of the lake is determined with help of 0 – 100 scale based on (TSI) calculations and (Ta), (Chl-a), (TP), (TN), (Pb) heavy metal, (TSS), (TDS), (pH), (EC), (MPN) and (COD). Lake can be classified according to Carlson as eutrophic (TSI was higher than 80) with dominance of blue green algae, extensive macrophyte problems, while according trophic state index (TSI) classification (TSI), (TP) and (Chl-a), were classified the lake as extremely hyper eutrophic and algal scums

Trade-offs between effluent quality and ammonia volatilisation with CO2 augmented microalgal treatment of anaerobically digested food-waste centrate

Diversion of food waste from landfill disposal to waste-to-energy facilities has become both an environmentally and economically viable option to support the circular bioeconomy. However, the liquid centrate produced during anaerobic digestion is high in total ammonia, with concentrations ~2000 g m−3, and can release gaseous emissions, including ammonia, methane, CO2 and nitrous oxide, to the atmosphere. Further treatment is required before discharge to sewer, or to the environment. Microalgal wastewater treatment systems augmented with CO2 offer a promising and cost-effective treatment solution for reducing both total ammonia concentrations and ammonia volatilisation. In this study, we investigate the effects of augmenting CO2 on nutrient removal and specifically nitrogen losses, as well as biomass productivity under two difference hydraulic retention times (HRT). Both CO2 addition and HRT affect nitrogen losses, with the percentage removal of total ammonia significantly lower (p < 0.01) when CO2 was added to the treatments, while increased HRT significantly increased (p < 0.05) total ammonia percentage removal. Total nitrogen budgets showed significantly lower (p < 0.01) abiotic nitrogen losses from the system when CO2 was added to the culture but at the expense of effluent quality. Both total suspended solids and volatile suspended solids significantly increased (p < 0.01) under longer HRT (8 days), with CO2 addition, while chlorophyll-a biomass significantly increased (p < 0.01) on longer HRT, regardless of CO2 addition. These results demonstrate that, while CO2 augmentation helped to mitigate ammonia losses to atmosphere, the trade-off was poorer effluent quality. Coupling CO2 augmentation with longer HRT increased biomass production and nutrient removal efficiency. This study provides an insight into how simple operational changes can alleviate some of the trade-offs between atmospheric losses and effluent quality. However, in order to manage the trade-off between reduced atmospheric losses and poorer effluent quality, further optimisation of the operation of the microalgal system treating food-waste centrate is required.

A technical review of bioenergy and resource recovery from municipal solid waste

Population growth, rapid urbanization, industrialization and economic development have led to the magnified municipal solid waste generation at an alarming rate on a global scale. Municipal solid waste seems to be an economically viable and attractive resource to produce green fuels through different waste-to-energy conversion routes. This paper reviews the different waste-to-energy technologies as well as thermochemical and biological conversion technologies for the valorization of municipal solid waste and diversion for recycling. The key waste-to-energy technologies discussed in this review include conventional thermal incineration and the modern hydrothermal incineration. The thermochemical treatments (e.g. pyrolysis, liquefaction and gasification) and biological treatments (e.g. anaerobic digestion and composting) are also elaborated for the transformation of solid wastes to biofuel products. The current status of municipal solid waste management for effective disposal and diversion along with the opportunities and challenges has been comprehensively reviewed. The merits and technical challenges of the waste-to-energy technologies are systematically discussed to promote the diversion of solid wastes from landfill disposal to biorefineries.

Investigation of waste diversion rates in the construction and demolition sector in Australia

PurposeWaste diversion rate (WDR) is a key indicator of effective waste management and circular economy. However, it has not yet been widely used in the construction and demolition waste (C&amp;DW) sector. This study aims to promote the application of WDR as an effective measure for waste management through the investigation of the current status of C&amp;DW diversion in the Australian construction industry.Design/methodology/approachA mixed-method approach, which combines a desk study and a case study of 12 residential projects was used in this study. Data retrieved from the National Waste Database (NWD) were used for the descriptive analysis.FindingsThe analysis of the national waste data revealed that the national average WDR in Australia is 64%. WDR varies based on material types and across the states. The analysis facilitated the forecasting of the possible future trend of waste diversion in Australia. The studied projects from two states in Australia presented slightly different results. Most of the waste stream, except mixed waste, presented above 95% of WDR in each project.Research limitations/implicationsAlthough the studied projects showed a higher recycling rate, this study claims that achieving a higher rate of recovery by diverting the waste could not be assured unless accurate estimation is carried out with reliable and verifiable data. Lack of reliable data is considered as the limitation of this study. While the scope of descriptive analysis of waste generation and diversion covers the whole country, the case study analysis is limited to the states of New South Wales and Victoria.Originality/valueThe study highlights the significance of WDR in assessing the performance of effective waste management in the C&amp;DW sector. WDR is a comprehensive measure that takes the output of the waste life cycle into account for benchmarking waste management. The results provide a critique of the current practices of waste management and the essence of the consistent, transparent and verifiable waste data to enable accurate WDR estimation in Australia. The outcome is useful for waste managers and policymakers in developing potential waste management strategies and C&amp;DW specific legislation for building a more ecologically sustainable industry.

Impact of COVID-19 on household waste flows, diversion and reuse: The case of multi-residential buildings in Toronto, Canada

The COVID-19 pandemic has had numerous environmental consequences, including impacts on municipal waste management systems. Changes in consumption and waste disposal patterns and behaviours during the lockdown period have produced new challenges for solid waste management and waste diversion activities. This paper develops a conceptual model that reflects short-term changes in waste flows from households that are due to COVID-19 disruptions, focusing on the case of multi-residential buildings in Toronto, Canada. Multi-residential buildings are of interest because they differ from single family homes in several key ways that can produce some slightly different impacts of COVID-19 on waste flows and practices. Primary research for the study included interviews with 19 staff, residents and property managers of ten multi-residential buildings. All of the research took place while Toronto was still in partial-lockdown. Analysis of the interviews revealed five themes around the impact of COVID-19: (1) changes in garbage, recycling and organics flows, (2) new health and safety concerns, (3) changes in reuse and reduction practices, (4) changes in special waste and deposit-return bottle collections, and (5) changes in waste diversion and reduction education. Given the time frame of our study, we recognize these as short-term impacts and call for future research to determine how many of the changes are likely to perpetuate over the medium and longer term.

Analysis of Portugal’s refuse derived fuel strategy, with particular focus on the northern region

Portugal’s performance concerning the Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) strategy, with particular focus on perspectives for the Northern Region based on the current status of integrated municipal waste management systems in that region, was evaluated. Legal documents, official reports and the market were analyzed. The 2015 national installed capacity of waste treatment technologies, from which the high calorific value fraction (HCVF) for RDF production is obtained, is not far from what was predicted for 2013. However, only around 11% of the HCVF had such destiny and the amount of effectively produced RDF was only 30% of the material sent to RDF production (around 30 kt). In Northern Portugal, no RDF production plant was in operation in 2015; the amount of HCVF was estimated to range from 105 to 204 kt for 2015 and around 2.4 times more is expected in 2020. The strategy laydown for RDF failed so far, and thus, low diversion of waste from landfills is observed, mostly due to low landfill taxes and low HCVF quality, resulting in RDF being non-competitive with the imported higher quality product from countries with very high landfilling fees. Moreover, co-incineration and dedicated recovery solutions are scarce. In the Northern region, the HCVF may be treated in the existing municipal waste incinerator or the RDF might be recovered in new dedicated plants, receiving also non-hazardous waste fractions from other origin. Overall, to ensure a sustainable municipal waste management, the intensification of the reuse, preparation for reuse and recycling of waste components from source segregated collection must be significantly promoted.