Waste Animal Fats Research Articles

Renewable diesel from oils and animal fat waste: implications of feedstock, technology, co-products and ILUC on life cycle GWP

We investigate the use of rendered poultry fat, beef tallow, and soybean oil as ready sources of free fatty acids (FFAs) and triglycerides (TG) for conversion to renewable diesel. Laboratory scale saponification and decarboxylation experiments using trilaurin, lauric acid, protein, and water as a model compound representing rendered animal fat are reported and combined with chemical process simulations, and thermodynamic and kinematics equations to build energy and material balances where Ab Initio methods are used for estimating missing data to build a life cycle inventory model. Life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for producing renewable diesel from soybean oil, poultry fat, and beef tallow fall between −8.7 and 47.2 g CO2 equivalent/MJ even considering induced land use change when soybean oil is used as feedstock. Emissions vary depending on co-products and allocation rules used, which can affect compliance with energy policies.

Trends in Biodiesel Production from Animal Fat Waste

The agro-food industry generates large amounts of waste that contribute to environmental contamination. Animal fat waste constitutes some of the most relevant waste and the treatment of such waste is quite costly because environmental regulations are quite strict. Part of such costs might be reduced through the generation of bioenergy. Biodiesel constitutes a valid renewable source of energy because it is biodegradable, non-toxic and has a good combustion emission profile and can be blended up to 20% with fossil diesel for its use in many countries. Furthermore, up to 70% of the total cost of biodiesel majorly depends on the cost of the raw materials used, which can be reduced using animal fat waste because they are cheaper than vegetable oil waste. In fact, 6% of total feedstock corresponded to animal fat in 2019. Transesterification with alkaline catalysis is still preferred at industrial plants producing biodiesel. Recent developments in heterogeneous catalysts that can be easily recovered, regenerated and reused, as well as immobilized lipases with increased stability and resistance to alcohol denaturation, are promising for future industrial use. This manuscript reviews the available processes and recent advances for biodiesel generation from animal fat waste.

Bioliquids from raw waste animal fats: an alternative renewable energy source

Three different waste animal fats (bone, chicken, and tallow) have been studied to evaluate whether they could be used as bioliquids according to the European Regulation (EC) No.1069/2009. The analyses showed that they contained an unsuitable amount of free fatty acids (FFA) and impurities content (total sediment) if compared with the standards for power generation (set by UNI 6579:2009), with the exception of tallow fat (class C, UNI/TS 11163:2018). A series of physical-chemical processes already applied at industrial scale have been considered to manage the acid value and the impurities content. The FFA esterification was carried out with methanol, comparing two acid catalysts (sulfuric acid or Amberlyst – 15), followed by neutralization of the residual acidity with two different bases (ammonia solution or solid sodium carbonate monohydrate) when necessary. The final purification has been achieved by treatment with powdered activated carbon. In particular, the bone fat was studied as reference material, having the worst initial physical-chemical characteristics. The UNI/TS 11163:2018 standard would allow to classify the bioliquid from bone fat belonging to class B, while the one from chicken would require further degumming and purification processes to reduce the metals, sulfur, and phosphorus content.

A Short Review on Valorization of Slaughterhouse Wastes for Biodiesel Production

AbstractIn recent years, the waste animal fats are drawing attention as potential feedstocks for biodiesel production. The exploit of rendered waste animal fats as feedstocks could help to further decrease the price of biodiesel compared to other feedstocks. These fatty wastes can be transformed into ethyl or methyl esters by the esterification and/or transesterification process with the aid of different types of catalysts. In this outlook, an endeavor has been made in this work to describe the significance of fatty wastes of chicken, fish, beef, goat, sheep, pig and duck in the biodiesel production process. This study also extends to present the distinct techniques used by researchers to convert these fatty wastes into biodiesel.

Kinetic Study of Waste-derived Solid Hydroxy Sodalite Catalyst during Transesterification of Animal Fat Oil to Biodiesel in a Batch Reactor

Kinetic studies of heterogeneous catalytic reactions form a crucial step necessary for the understanding of catalytic behaviour of a catalyst towards designing, controlling and optimizing a reactor. This study reports kinetics of waste animal fat oil (AFO) transesterification to biodiesel using waste-derived heterogeneous catalyst, hydroxy sodalite (HSOD) in a batch reactor. The catalyst was synthesized from coal fly ash and waste industrial brine via hydrothermal treatment. At a temperature range of 49 - 62 °C and a time range of 30 -120 minutes, the transesterification of animal fat oil to biodiesel was conducted at a fixed methanol/oil mass proportion 9:1, percent mass weight of catalyst 3 (based on the AFO) and stirring intensity of 300-500 rpm. Experimental findings reveal that reaction rate, which is first-order, was anticipated to increase with increasing temperature, resulted in an activation energy and a pre-exponential factor of 58554.65 J mol-1 and 2.83 min-1, respectively. The value of the activation energy suggests that the reaction is endothermic and a minimum energy of 58.55 kJ is required to achieve an effective collision at a frequency of 2.83 min-1. The highest biodiesel yield was 90 % at 62 °C and this corresponds to a highest AFO conversion of 93 % at a reaction time of 120 minutes.

Study of Metabolic Adaptation of Red Yeasts to Waste Animal Fat Substrate.

Carotenogenic yeasts are non-conventional oleaginous microorganisms capable of utilizing various waste substrates. In this work, four red yeast strains (Rhodotorula, Cystofilobasidium, and Sporobolomyces sp.) were cultivated in media containing crude, emulsified, and enzymatically hydrolyzed animal waste fat, compared with glucose and glycerol, as single C-sources. Cell morphology (cryo-SEM (cryo-scanning electron microscopy), TEM (transmission electron microscopy)), production of biomass, lipase, biosurfactants, lipids (gas chromatography/flame ionization detection, GC/FID) carotenoids, ubiquinone, and ergosterol (high performance liquid chromatography, HPLC/PDA) in yeast cells was studied depending on the medium composition, the C source, and the carbon/nitrogen (C/N) ratio. All studied strains are able to utilize solid and processed fat. Biomass production at C/N = 13 was higher on emulsified/hydrolyzed fat than on glucose/glycerol. The production of lipids and lipidic metabolites was enhanced for several times on fat; the highest yields of carotenoids (24.8 mg/L) and lipids (54.5%/CDW (cell dry weight)) were found in S. pararoseus. Simultaneous induction of lipase and biosurfactants was observed on crude fat substrate. An increased C/N ratio (13–100) led to higher biomass production in fat media. The production of total lipids increased in all strains to C/N = 50. Oppositely, the production of carotenoids, ubiquinone, and ergosterol dramatically decreased with increased C/N in all strains. Compounds accumulated in stressed red yeasts have a great application potential and can be produced efficiently during the valorization of animal waste fat under the biorefinery concept.

Investigation of petro-diesel, waste animal fat biodiesel with waste cooked oil biodiesel different blends in single cylinder four-stroke water-cooled CI engine

ABSTRACT The present paper investigates the performance, combustion and emission analysis of various biodiesel blends prepared from animal fat methyl ester (AF100) and waste cooked oil (WCO) 8–10 h used. A single cylinder, four-stroke, water-cooled, compression ignition (CI) engine was used in this investigation. Blends were prepared differently, by mixing of prepared biodiesels in various proportions. The AF100 and WCO are prepared through transesterification process. In the preparation of AF100 and WCO, catalyst potassium hydroxide (KOH) and alcohol methanol are used. The prepared AF100r was blended with WCO and petro-diesel (PD) in various proportions such as AF50WCO50 (50% of AF100 and 50% of WCO), PD50AF30WCO20 (50% of PD, 30% of AF100 and 20% of WCO) and PD50AF50 (50% of AF100 and 50% of PD). Few important properties were tabulated and compared with PD. Performance, combustion and emission tests were carried out with the above-prepared blends and compared with PD. From the tests, it was observed that PD50AF30WCO20 consumes lesser brake-specific fuel consumption and produced higher brake thermal efficiency compared to other tested blends. PD50AF50 develops higher cylinder pressure which emits more amount of CO2. 30% higher exhaust gas temperature is found in AF50WCO50 and 28% higher of CO, 22% of lower amount of unburned hydrocarbons was found in the blend. PD50AF30WCO20 develops a maximum amount of heat release rate with lower amount of CO, NO x and smoke emission compared to other blends. After completion of these investigations, it is concluded that PD50AF30WCO20 is a better suitable blend of two biodiesels used in CI engines without any modification.

Effect of Dominant Fatty Acid Esters on Emission Characteristics of Waste Animal Fat Biodiesel in CI Engine

This present study aims in understanding the influence of dominant fatty acid esters of waste animal fat biodiesel on its emission characteristics in CI engine. Biodiesel was produced from waste animal fat by means of base catalysed transesterification; and Ethyl oleate (40.21%), ethyl palmitate (25.36%) and ethyl stearate (16.87%) were characterized as dominant fatty acid esters using GC spectra. Test samples were prepared for these ester molecules based on their availability, in addition to biodiesel blend and plain diesel and were tested for their emission levels in single cylinder four stroke CI engine using flue gas analyser. High exhaust gas temperature was contributed by Ethyl oleate (1.15% lesser than biodiesel), as a result of low cetane number due to unsaturation and high viscosity. Likewise, the increased carbon chain length and unsaturation of ethyl oleate (2.55% lesser than biodiesel) resulted in high concentration of CO emission for biodiesel whereas high CO2 emission concentration was because of ester molecules with increased carbon chain length (stearate and Oleate esters). Reduced NOX emission for biodiesel was as a result of higher cetane number from ethyl stearate (CN=86.83) and ethyl palmitate (CN=86.55), which reduced its ignition delay thereby moderating the heat release rate. In addition, long carbon chained ester molecules (oleate and stearate esters) in biodiesel consumed more oxygen content for improving overall rate of combustion while increased HC emission was explained by unsaturation in biodiesel because of ethyl oleate (on average ,50 PPM).

Biodiesel Production from Mutton Waste Fat – A Short Review

Currently, the world is facing an immense threat from pollution and global warming. Fossil fuels are limited, and they are considered as non-renewable source of energy. Crude oil reserves are consumed at large scale with respective passing year. If the consumption rate is increased, it may cause ruination and irreplaceable damage to the environment. It now poses a great threat to mankind and to our planet earth. Renewable source of energy is revolutionary in this modern era. Biofuels are one of the most promising alternatives to conventional sources of fuel. Biodiesel is an eco-friendly, non-toxic green fuel that reduces the use of fossil fuel and helps combat climate change. Biodiesel can be produced through transesterification of waste animal fats into fatty acid methyl esters. India is the second largest producer of goat-based meat in the world. Currently, there is so much of waste fat being generated from meat processing plants and dumped in open grounds. It is hazardous waste and causes environmental pollution. The process of converting waste fat to biodiesel will reduce the dumping of waste fat. It can act as a major technique in fighting menace of pollution and helps in better waste management.<div><br></div>

Methyl palmitate hydrodeoxygenation over silica‐supported nickel phosphide catalysts in flow reactor: experimental and kinetic study

AbstractBACKGROUNDThe search for alternative sources of fuels is crucial for sustainable development now and in the near future. Biomass attracts much attention as an environmentally friendly, green and CO2‐neutral source of fuels. Hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) of fatty acid‐based feedstocks such as nonedible vegetable oil, waste cooking oil and animal fat is a versatile technology for producing efficient fuels. HDO schemes are often contradictory and have different numbers of stages. In the work reported, a highly active nickel phosphide catalyst was obtained and methyl palmitate (MP) HDO kinetic modelling was carried out to elucidate the HDO reaction scheme.RESULTSThe effect of reduction temperature (400–600 °C) on the catalytic properties of the catalyst in MP HDO was evaluated and the most active catalyst (after reduction at 450 °C) was used in the kinetic experiments. The experimental data were collected in a wide range of MP conversion. The reaction scheme of MP HDO was elucidated by means of mathematical modelling which was specified by successive consideration of the experimental results of HDO selectivities at low MP conversions (1–10%), additional experiments of alcohol HDO (dodecanol‐1 as an analogue for hexadecanol‐1) and analysis of gas‐phase products.CONCLUSIONSIn accordance with the results obtained, both hydrolysis of MP and hydrogenolysis of C&amp;bond;OCH3 bond should be considered for describing the conversion of MP to intermediate compounds. This finding could explain the synergetic effect of acid and metal centres, which has been reported in the literature on aliphatic ester HDO, and justify the higher activity of bifunctional catalysts in this reaction. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry

Improvement of the compression ignition behaviour and combustion efficiency of the second generation biofuel BIOXDIESEL

Biodiesel fuel is covering more and more place in the market. The reason is a limited fossil fuels resources and the need to reduce emission of harmful substances by application of the fuel made of renewable resources. Currently in Poland and in Europe, the Fatty Acid Methyl Esters are used as biocomponent of the biodiesel fuel or it is used as pure biodiesel fuel. This paper presents the research on the biofuel, which contains mainly Fatty Acid Ethyl Esters, (the energetic value of FAEE is higher than FAME) and mineral Diesel fuel is a small addition. This paper presents research on the improvement of the compression ignition behaviour and combustion effectiveness of the second generation biofuel BIOXDIESEL, which contains up to 75% of biocomponents (FAEE with bioethanol) with addition of mineral Diesel fuel. Improvement of the auto-ignition properties is achieved through the multi-component composition of Bioxdiesel fuel and dosing of enriching additives. The quality of the fuel has been evaluated during engine testing and during laboratory measurement of fuel parameters. Whereas satisfactory results show that it is appropriate to supplement the composition of biofuels produced from waste vegetable and animal fats and alcohol with the refining additive.

Reuse of waste animal fat in biodiesel: Biorefining heavily-degraded contaminant-rich waste animal fat and formulation as diesel fuel additive

Here we report a study on the technical feasibility of using purified animal fat as additive in a diesel fuel for internal combustion engines. The objective is to obtain a base fat with contaminant-free and ready to be diluted in petroleum diesel to obtain a diesel fuel blend with acceptable characteristics in terms of engine-system tolerances.A crude fat refining process composed of a vacuum distillation step and a glycerolysis step to convert the free fatty acids (FFA) recovered from distillation step into triglycerides (TAG) is used. Parametric study to determine the optimal purification-process conditions are used. The TAG obtained after a refining step, is then blended with standard diesel.A satisfactory formulation has already been used to power a system-equipped (converted) diesel engine, and blend ratio of up to 40% in standard diesel perform well enough to run the target engine.The results of this study show that this approach is technically feasible and economically interesting for recovering this waste into fuel. Moreover, it permits a decrease of the fuel carbon balance.

Metal hydrated-salts as efficient and reusable catalysts for pre-treating waste cooking oils and animal fats for an effective production of biodiesel

A very efficient chemical pre-treatment method that uses cheap and safe hydrated-salts as catalysts for the conversion of waste cooking oils and animal fats having a high Free Fatty Acids (FFAs) content into an oily feedstock convertible into biodiesel through a conventional route (basic catalysis) was investigated. These hydrated-salts allow FFAs to be efficiently (>99%) esterified with alcohols under very mild conditions (343 K, 2 h). At the end of this treatment, a very convenient separation of products was verified. Two different phases were eventually obtained: an upper alcoholic phase, which contains most of the unreacted alcohol, water obtained by direct-esterification (>95%), and the salt that was used as catalyst (recovery >99%); and a lower oily-phase mainly composed of glycerides, methyl-esters derived from direct-esterification of FFAs (residual acidity of about 0.8 mg KOH/g), and part of unreacted alcohol (7–10%wt). Such a separation was convenient because the oily-phase could be directly trans-esterified through conventional base-catalysis, without any further pre-treatments, thus avoiding production of salty-waste. Also, the alcoholic phase could be recovered and directly re-used for new pre-treatments cycles of fresh waste-oils. A final scheme of the proposed process was discussed and the relevant advantages with respect to conventional routes were highlighted.

Influences of biodiesel fuels produced from highly degraded waste animal fats on the injection and emission characteristics of a CRDI diesel engine

In the current study, biodiesel fuels produced from waste chicken fat and waste fleshing oil with high free fatty acid were tested in a four stoke, four-cylinder, water-cooled, turbocharged-intercooled, common rail direct injection (CRDI) diesel engine. Their effects on the injection and exhaust emission characteristics of the test engine were determined and compared with those of petroleum-based diesel fuel (DF) as the reference fuel. Engine tests were performed at different engine loads and constant engine speed of 2000 rpm. Injection characteristics showed differences with respect to engine load and fuel type. However, the effects of biodiesel fuels on the injection profiles were more dominant for main injection characteristics such as the start of main injection, end of the main injection, injection amount and injection rate and these effects became more pronounced with increasing engine load. Compared to DF, animal fat based biodiesels had better total hydrocarbon (THC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions, but their carbon dioxide (CO2) and especially nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions were higher. In addition, waste fleshing oil-based biodiesel fuel emitted lower emissions than waste chicken fat-based biodiesel.

A kinetic model for a single step biodiesel production from a high free fatty acid (FFA) biodiesel feedstock over a solid heteropolyacid catalyst

Production of biodiesel from yellow grease (waste cooking oil and waste animal fats) is fast emerging as a promising alternative to address the twin challenges before the biodiesel industry today-fluctuation in prices of vegetable oil and the food versus fuel debate. Yellow grease has a high percentage of free fatty acids (FFA) and proves to be an unsuitable feedstock for biodiesel production from commercially viable alkali-catalyzed production systems due to saponification problems.“Green” methodologies based on heterogeneous solid acid catalyzed reactions have the potential to simultaneously promote esterification and transesterification reactions of yellow grease to produce biodiesel without soap formation and offer easy catalyst separation without generation of toxic streams. This paper presents kinetic studies for the conversion of model yellow grease feeds to biodiesel using a heteropolyacid supported on alumina (HSiW/Al2O3) using a batch autoclave. Three model yellow grease feeds were prepared using canola oil with added FFA such as palmitic, oleic and linoleic acid. A pseudo homogeneous kinetic model for the parallel esterification and transesterification was developed. The rate constants and activation parameters for esterification and transesterification reactions for the model yellow grease feeds were determined. The rate constants for esterification are higher than the transesterification rate constants. The kinetic model was validated using the experimental biodiesel data obtained from processing a commercial yellow grease feed. The kinetic model could be used to design novel processes to convert various low-value waste oils, fats and non-food grade oils to sustainable biodiesel.

PRODUCTION OF BIODIESEL USING WASTE FAT FROM ROASTED CHICKEN

Fossil fuels are non-renewable sources of energy which generate pollutants and are linked to global warming and climatic change. In order to overcome these problems, there is a need for an alternative for fossil fuels. The most common renewable fuel is biodiesel which is produced from vegetable oils, animal fat wastes and poultry. The aim of the present work was to study the transesterification of liquid fat resulted from chicken roasting. This fat was esterified with methanol and NaOH as a basic catalyst. Product yield of chicken fatty acid methyl Ester (CFME) was 79.1 % for liquid fat resulted from roasting. All quality control parameters for biodiesel produced (B100) were generally in agreement with ASTM standards. It can be concluded that chicken fat resulted from roasting is suitable for low cost feed stocks for biodiesel production.

Wet corrosion behavior of copper exposed to recycled groundnut oil as biofuel

AbstractThe scarcity of fossil fuels may lead to a depletion of coal, oil and natural gas in the near future. Alternative fuels, especially biofuels, are receiving considerable attention for their environmental benefits. Biodiesel is a renewable and clean burning fuel that is made from waste vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled restaurant grease for use in diesel vehicles. Biodiesel produces fewer toxic pollutants and greenhouse gases than petroleum diesel. Many biofuels have been extracted and synthesized but little has been undertaken to study their effects on corrosion. The present investigation aims to evaluate the wet corrosion behavior of copper in used groundnut oil (UGNO) as a biofuel. The varieties of its blending ratios with commercial diesel (5, 10 and 20 %) were studied in accord with the mass loss method for a period of 100 h. The corrosion rate of the metal was evaluated according to mass loss and electrochemical methods. The corrosivity and conductivity of the test media were positively correlated. Wettability studies also supported the non-corrosive nature of biodiesel.

Investigation of Waste Animal Fat Based Biodiesel Fuels’ Usage in a Common Rail Direct Injection Diesel Engine: Performance and Combustion Characteristics

Investigation of Waste Animal Fat Based Biodiesel Fuels’ Usage in a Common Rail Direct Injection Diesel Engine: Performance and Combustion Characteristics

Deep Eutectic Solvents for Purification of Waste Animal Fats and Crude Biodiesel

U ovom je radu istražena mogućnost primjene niskotemperaturnih eutektičkih otapala za ekstrakcijsku deacidifikaciju otpadnih životinjskih masti te uklanjanje glicerola i glicerida iz sirovog biodizela. Istraživanje je uključilo odabir povoljnog katalizatora te masenog omjera katalizatora, metanola i masti koji bi rezultirali najvećom konverzijom triglicerida u metilne estere masnih kiselina. Definirano je potrebno vrijeme pročišćavanja sirovog biodizela te optimalan maseni omjer otapala i sirovog biodizela. Ekstrakcijskom deacidifikacijom pomoću niskotemperaturnog eutektičkog otapala na bazi kalijeva karbonata uspješno je reducirana kiselost sirovine uz relativno mali utrošak otapala (maseni omjer otapala i masti: 0,25 : 1,00) i kratko vrijeme trajanja procesa (30 min). Kalijev hidroksid pokazao se kao učinkovitiji katalizator. Udio katalizatora u reakcijskoj smjesi utječe više na konverziju masti od udjela metanola. Udio glicerola i glicerida reduciran je ekstrakcijom pomoću niskotemperaturnog eutektičkog otapala na bazi kolin klorida na vrijednosti manje od standardom propisane vrijednosti (EN 14214:2019). Odabrano se otapalo pokazalo selektivnim zbog toga što nije došlo do redukcije udjela metilnih estera. Pri masenom omjeru otapala i biodizela 1 : 1 i 90 min trajanja ekstrakcije postignuti su najbolji rezultati. Pročišćeni biodizel također zadovoljava standard kvalitete s obzirom na udio estera, gustoću i viskoznost.

Investigation of Waste Animal Fat Based Biodiesel Fuels’ Usage in a Common Rail Direct Injection Diesel Engine: Performance and Combustion Characteristics

Investigation of Waste Animal Fat Based Biodiesel Fuels’ Usage in a Common Rail Direct Injection Diesel Engine: Performance and Combustion Characteristics