Water Conservation Research Articles

Intelligent question answering for water conservancy project inspection driven by knowledge graph and large language model collaboration

Intelligent question answering for water conservancy project inspection driven by knowledge graph and large language model collaboration

Nitrogen leaching and groundwater recharge of alternative lawn conversions in subtropical climates

AbstractClimate change, recurrent droughts, and increasing urban water demands have limited water availability in urban landscapes. Water quantity challenges have led to irrigation restrictions and turfgrass removal programs. An experiment was conducted at the University of Florida, West Florida Research and Education Center, Jay, FL, to evaluate the effect of turfgrass conversion to other landscape types on nutrient leaching and groundwater recharge. In April 2021, all surface vegetation was removed from existing turfgrass plots using a sod harvester. Thereafter, plots were planted or covered with three landscape types: a pollinator landscape with flowering forbs (Mimosa sp., Coreopsis sp., and Phyla sp.) + turfgrass (Eremochloa ophiuroides); a nitrogen (N)‐efficient lawn (Arachis glabrata + Paspalum notatum); and a low‐input landscape with unplanted woodchip mulch. Undisturbed turfgrass (E. ophiuroides) served as a control. For 2 years, leachate samples were collected weekly from previously installed 168‐L drainage lysimeters for NO3‐N and NH4‐N load determination. Temporal changes in landscape composition, groundwater recharge, water use, and soil bulk density were also quantified. While the mulch leached 44.7 kg ha−1 NO3‐N year−1, this landscape still offers positive attributes, including erosion protection and water conservation. Conversely, the pollinator landscape minimized nitrogen leaching (8.3 kg ha−1 NO3‐N year−1) due to their relatively greater water use rates (3.56 mm day−1). The turfgrass and nitrogen‐efficient lawn returned ∼35% of the water inputs as groundwater recharge while maintaining relatively low nitrogen leaching (3.6 and 2.7 kg ha−1 NO3‐N year−1, respectively), making these landscapes efficient for protecting both water quality and quantity.

Multidimensional multiscale complexity analysis of sediment dynamics in the Yanhe Watershed of the loess Plateau, China

The Yanhe Watershed, emblematic of the loess hilly-gully landscape and ecological fragility in China's Loess Plateau, has experienced significant soil erosion and extensive soil-water conservation measures. To elucidate sediment dynamics and identify influencing factors in this region from 1960 to 2020, a novel multidimensional multiscale complexity analysis (MMCA) method was developed, based on entropy and complexity perspectives. This method integrated the refined composite multiscale fuzzy entropy (RCMFE) with multidimensional complexity analysis, offering a nuanced evaluation of sediment complexity and its implications for water resource management and ecological restoration. The findings revealed two distinct stages of sediment complexity variations: 1971–1988 and 2000–present. During the first period, the operation of the Wangyao Reservoir predominantly influenced sediment dynamics, initially reducing sediment complexity through sediment interception but later increasing it during discharge phases, particularly at larger scales. After 2002, extensive vegetation restoration efforts significantly reduced sediment complexity but raised concerns about long-term ecosystem resilience. Over the past decade, urbanization and climate change have exacerbated sediment instability, especially over semi-annual scales. This study advocates for management strategies that prioritize ecosystem sustainability and address the challenges posed by climate change and urbanization, facilitating improved soil and water conservation efforts in the Yanhe Watershed and similar regions in the Loess Plateau.

Enhancing agricultural sustainability with water and crop management strategies in modern irrigation and drainage networks

Improving global food security hinges on achieving sustainable agricultural production within independent irrigation and drainage units, considering the availability of sustainable water resources. This study investigated the potential for enhancing the sustainability of agricultural production in a modern irrigation and drainage network (TIDN) area and evaluated the network's performance under various strategies. These strategies included mulching, transitioning from traditional to drip irrigation, combining mulching with drip irrigation (IDM), and reducing the crop yield gap. Utilizing 2009–2018 data and the AquaCrop model, which was both calibrated and validated, the green and blue water footprints (GWF and BWF) of dominant crops in the region's cropping pattern were assessed. The crop cultivation was prioritized based on the total and unit unsustainable BWF. The performance of TIDN was evaluated using indicators of reliability, vulnerability, system deficiency, flexibility, and sustainability. The drip irrigation had the most significant impact on reducing BWF, while mulching was more effective in decreasing GWF. The adoption of IDM led to a total annual water savings of 382.4 m3 ha−1. The 10-year average reductions in BWF from May to August ranged from 1.7 to 3.1 MCM, with approximately 88–93 % of these savings attributed to decreased water consumption in rice fields. Mulch, drip, and IDM decreased the BWF by 3.3 %, 9.4 %, and 10.2 %, respectively, compared to current conditions. The study revealed that the expansion of rice cultivation under conventional flooding irrigation was incompatible with the sustainable blue water resources available, and replacing rice with wheat could reduce the unsustainable BWF by 95–100 %. Compared to current conditions, IDM improved network sustainability by 1.2 %, while closing the yield gap improved the indicator by 24 %. The findings suggest that combining infrastructural solutions, such as updating irrigation systems, with farm management solutions, such as reducing crop yield gaps and implementing mulching, can significantly enhance the sustainability of production in intensively agricultural areas.

Integrated Morphometric and Hypsometric Analysis of Niragantipalli Micro Watershed Using Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System Techniques

Employing Remote sensing (RS) and geographic information system (GIS) for the morphometric parameters analysis are discovered to be tremendous usefulness in the prioritization of watersheds for soil, water conservation and natural resource management at micro watershed level. The analysis of morphometric parameters plays a crucial role for understanding and managing watersheds. In current study an, attempt was to determine the morphological parameters of Niragantipalli micro-watershed in Chikkaballapura District of Karnataka, India. For detail study, Google earth pro, GPS visualizer conversion toll and Arc GIS were used for preparation of DEM and delineation of the watershed boundary. GIS was used for evaluation of basic, linear, areal and relief aspects of morphometric parameters. The Niragantipalli micro-watershed occupies an area of 632 ha with third order stream (truck order) and dendritic drainage pattern. The mean bifurcation ratio of the micro-watershed is 2.5 it suggests that the drainage system formed on homogeneous rock when the influences of geologic structures on the network of streams were negligible and generate sharp peak flow. With a drainage density of 1.31 km/km2, the drainage network is extremely coarse. The watershed is elongated, as shown by the form factor of 0.27 and elongation ratio of 0.58. The results from the morphometric analysis of the watershed are very beneficial for developing and designing conservation structures of soil and watershed management measures. The hypsometric curves’ structure as well as estimated hypsometric integral results reflects the Niragantipalli Micro Watershed erosional stages. As a result, the study concludes that morphometric and hypsometric analysis findings may be useful to stakeholders participating in catchment development and management projects.

Genome Editing for Grass Improvement and Future Agriculture

Abstract Grasses, including turf and forage, cover most of the earth’s surface; predominantly important for land, water, livestock feed, soil and water conservation, as well as carbon sequestration. Improved production and quality of grasses by modern molecular breeding is gaining more research attention. Recent advances in genome-editing technologies are helping to revolutionize plant breeding and also offering smart and efficient acceleration on grass improvement. Here, we reviewed all recent researches using (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein (Cas)-mediated genome editing tools to enhance the growth and quality of forage and turf grasses. Furthermore, we highlighted emerging approaches aimed at advancing grass breeding program. We assessed the CRISPR-Cas effectiveness, discussed the challenges associated with its application, and explored future perspectives primarily focusing on turf and forage grasses. Despite the promising potential of genome editing in grasses, its current efficiency remains limited due to several bottlenecks, such as the absence of comprehensive reference genomes, the lack of efficient gene delivery tools, unavailability of suitable vector and delivery for grass species, high polyploidization, multiple homoeoalleles, etc. Despite these challenges, the CRISPR-Cas system holds great potential to fully harness its benefits in grass breeding and genetics, aiming to improve and sustain the quantity and quality of turf and forage grasses.

Assessing the Impact of Productive Safety Net Program on Soil and Water Conservation Practices in the Amhara Sayint Woreda, Ethiopia

Land degradation is a critical issue in Ethiopia, exacerbating food insecurity by reducing agricultural productivity. Soil and water conservation (SWC) practices are essential to control erosion and increase food production. However, there is a lack of comprehensive evaluations on the impact of Ethiopia’s Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP) on SWC practices. This study aimed to assess the contribution of the PSNP to SWC in the Amhara Sayint Woreda. The researchers used a mixed-method approach, combining quantitative and qualitative data. Multistage sampling was used to select households, and data were collected through questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, and observations. The study provided empirical evidence that the PSNP has a positive impact on SWC practices. Key factors influencing SWC participation include age, family size, education, plot size, livestock ownership, credit service, and access to extension services. The results suggest that the PSNP should improve payment for public work participants implementing SWC, undertake institutional reform, and increase public awareness of the benefits of SWC in reversing land degradation and improving food security. This study uniquely contributes to the understanding of how the PSNP influences the varying degrees of participation in SWC practices, filling a critical research gap. The findings can inform policymakers and program managers to enhance the PSNP’s effectiveness in promoting sustainable land management and food security in Ethiopia.

A Comprehensive Overview on Sustainable Vegetable Gardening: Eco-friendly Approaches to Home Grown Production

Sustainable vegetable gardening is an eco-friendly practice that integrates organic farming principles, resource conservation, and biodiversity promotion to produce nutritious, chemical-free food while minimizing environmental impact. This approach emphasizes soil health through the use of organic amendments, crop rotation, composting, and mulching to improve fertility and water retention. Water conservation techniques, such as drip irrigation and rainwater harvesting, are employed to optimize water use, especially in arid regions. Pest and disease management relies on integrated pest management (IPM), biological controls, companion planting, and the use of organic pesticides to reduce chemical input while maintaining crop health. Sustainable homegrown produce has been shown to have superior nutritional content compared to commercially grown produce, and the avoidance of synthetic chemicals reduces the risk of pesticide residue exposure. Gardening fosters healthy eating habits by connecting individuals to their food sources, encouraging the consumption of fresh, unprocessed vegetables, and contributing to food security. The mental and physical health benefits of gardening, including reduced stress, increased physical activity, and improved mental well-being, further highlight its holistic value. However, challenges such as the initial setup costs, time investment, pest management, and knowledge gaps can hinder widespread adoption. Addressing these challenges requires greater access to resources, educational initiatives, and the development of climate-resilient practices tailored to specific regions. Future trends in sustainable gardening include the adoption of technological innovations, such as smart irrigation systems, automation, and vertical farming, which offer scalable solutions for urban and small-scale gardeners. The COVID-19 pandemic has underscored the importance of resilient, local food systems, and sustainable gardening is poised to play a critical role in addressing future food security concerns.

Assessment of soil erosion risk and vulnerability in the transboundary Sio-Malaba-Malakisi watershed in Kenya and Uganda

Persistent soil erosion poses a significant threat to water quality, ecosystem viability and soil health in many regions of the world. Addressing this challenge requires a comprehensive understanding of local soil erosion rates, including the identification of vulnerable areas, to facilitate effective and integrated environmental management. In East Africa, however, many affected regions are data poor and lack measured hydrological data from which soil erosion estimates can be derived. This study used the physically based Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) model to estimate the annual rate of soil erosion in the transboundary Sio-Malaba-Malakisi catchment, straddling Kenya and Uganda. Soil erosion events were quantified by integrating input factors derived from physical datasets using a Geographical Information System (GIS). The Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) technique was then used to assess the importance of selected physical factors influencing the soil erosion process in order to identify regions of increasing environmental vulnerability. The results obtained indicate a wide range of soil erosion rates across the region, with an estimated mean annual rate of 250 t ha−1 yr−1 for the whole catchment. Upstream areas characterized by intensive agricultural activity had erosion rates of up to 2000 t ha−1 yr−1, while downstream areas recorded erosion rates below 600 t ha−1 yr−1. Areas with intensive agriculture, unprotected soils, and a soil loss tolerance value above 12 t ha−1 yr−1 were found to be most vulnerable. Rainfall and vegetation cover were identified as key factors influencing erosion susceptibility. Regions with soil erosion rates above 50 t ha−1 yr−1 were identified as high priority regions for targeted soil and water conservation measures. The identification of vulnerability zones, including the classification of their severity, provides an opportunity to prioritize sustainable environmental management interventions; a process that can be replicated for such affected regions elsewhere.

Effects of Different Land Uses and Slope on Runoff and Soil Loss on the Loess Plateau of China

ABSTRACTThe Loess Plateau has one of the most serious areas of soil erosion in China; therefore, studying the effect of soil and water conservation measures on the erosion of loess soil slopes is important for land management and agricultural development. This study is based on 5 years of field runoff observations and rainfall data from 2015 to 2019. Correlation and regression analyses were used to study the runoff and sediment production of loess soil and its relationship with rainfall, slope and land use. The results show that > 80% of the erosive rainfall occurs mainly in July to August in the area. Runoff and soil loss from the plots differed substantially, depending on land use, soil conservation measures and slope degree. Bare plots experienced the highest soil loss rate of over 27 t/ha with higher runoff depth, followed by cultivated plots (4.55 t/ha), grass plots (0.43 t/ha), shrub plots (0.35 t/ha) and forest plots (0.13 t/ha). Among the four soil and water conservation measures, the runoff and sediment reduction benefits of forest and shrub plots were the highest. The runoff reduction benefit fluctuated at approximately 0.8, and the benefit of sediment reduction was ≈1. The overall performance was forest > shrubland > grassland > cultivated land > bare land, and the benefits of sediment reduction were greater than those of runoff reduction. Forests had the highest soil retention capacity on slopes from 5° to 25°, and forests on gentle slopes had the best water storage capacity. Shrub plots had the best water storage capacity when they were on steep slopes. Rainfall erosion forces were significantly and positively correlated (p < 0.01) with runoff depth and soil loss, making it the most significant rainfall indicator of sediment production. Under the same rainfall conditions, soil and water conservation measures are still required on bare slopes, land use is the main control factor for slope sediment production, and appropriate land use can greatly reduce the threat of slopes in terms of soil erosion. This study shows that soil and water conservation measures are imperative to prevent runoff and soil loss, especially for bare land without any measures; on steep slopes, a vegetation combination primarily featuring shrubs is expected to achieve greater benefits in reducing runoff and sediment. This study can provide a scientific basis for the management of vegetation measures and the implementation of soil and water conservation measures on loess soil slopes.

Assessing the Impact of Urbanization and Climate Change on Hydrological Processes in a Suburban Catchment

Global urbanization, population growth, and climate change have considerably impacted water resources, making sustainable water resource management (WRM) essential. Understanding the changes in hydrological components is important for effective WRM, particularly in cities such as Higashi-Hiroshima, which is known for its saké brewing industry. This study used the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) with Hydrological Response Units (HRUs) to achieve high spatial precision in assessing the impacts of land use change and climate variability on hydrological components in a suburban catchment in western Japan. Over the 30-year study period (1980s–2000s), land use change was the main driver of hydrological variability, whereas climate change played a minor role. Increased surface runoff, along with decrease in groundwater recharge, evapotranspiration, and baseflow, resulted in an overall reduction in water yield, with a 34.9% decrease in groundwater recharge attributed to the transformation of paddy fields into residential areas. Sustainable WRM practices, including water conservation, recharge zone protection, and green infrastructure, are recommended to balance urban development with water sustainability. These findings offer valuable insights into the strategies for managing water resources in rapidly urbanizing regions worldwide, emphasizing the need for an integrated WRM system that considers both land use and climate change impacts.

Rainfall Erosivity over Brazil: A Large National Database

Rainfall erosivity (RE) represents the potential of rainfall to cause soil erosion, and understanding its impact is essential for the adoption of soil and water conservation practices. Although several studies have estimated RE for Brazil, currently, no single reliable and easily accessible database exists for the country. To fill this gap, this work aimed to review the research and generate a rainfall erosivity database for Brazil. Data were gathered from studies that determined rainfall erosivity from observed rainfall records and synthetic rainfall series. Monthly and annual rainfall erosivity values were organized on a spreadsheet and in the shapefile format. In total, 54 studies from 1990 to 2023 were analyzed, resulting in the compilation of 5516 erosivity values for Brazil, of which 6.3% were pluviographic, and 93.7% were synthetic. The regions with the highest availability of information were the Northeast (35.6%), Southeast (30.1%), South (19.9%), Central-West (7.7%), and North (6.7%). The database, which can be accessed on the Mendeley Data platform, can aid professionals and researchers in adopting public policies and carrying out studies aimed at environmental conservation and management basin development.

Quantitative Analysis about the Spatial Heterogeneity of Water Conservation Services Function Using a Space–Time Cube Constructed Based on Ecosystem and Soil Types

Precisely delineating the spatiotemporal heterogeneity of water conservation services function (WCF) holds paramount importance for watershed management. However, the existing assessment techniques exhibit common limitations, such as utilizing only multi-year average values for spatial changes and relying solely on the spatial average values for temporal changes. Moreover, traditional research does not encompass all WCF values at each time step and spatial grid, hindering quantitative analysis of spatial heterogeneity in WCF. This study addresses these limitations by utilizing an improved water balance model based on ecosystem type and soil type (ESM-WBM) and employing the EFAST and Sobol’ method for parameter sensitivity analysis. Furthermore, a space–time cube of WCF, constructed using remote-sensing data, is further explored by Emerging Hot Spot Analysis for the expression of WCF spatial heterogeneity. Additionally, this study investigates the impact of two core parameters: neighborhood distance and spatial relationship conceptualization type. The results reveal that (1) the ESM-WBM model demonstrates high sensitivity toward ecosystem types and soil data, facilitating the accurate assessment of the impacts of ecosystem and soil pattern alterations on WCF; (2) the EHSA categorizes WCF into 17 patterns, which in turn allows for adjustments to ecological compensation policies in related areas based on each pattern; and (3) neighborhood distance and the type of spatial relationships conceptualization significantly impacts the results of EHSA. In conclusion, this study offers references for analyzing the spatial heterogeneity of WCF, providing a theoretical foundation for regional water resource management and ecological restoration policies with tailored strategies.

Improving sustainability of rice-canola rotation through water and nitrogen management in a humid region

Intensive cropping systems face significant environmental and economic challenges due to current water and nutrient management practices. This study addresses the limited research on optimizing these practices in rice-canola rotations, focusing on enhancing sustainability through improved water and nitrogen (N) management. Utilizing the DSSAT crop growth model, we evaluated three irrigation scenarios for rice- I1 (100 % irrigation requirement: IR), I2 (80 % IR), and I3 (60 % IR)-alongside three N application levels: N1 (30 % below RAN: regional average N), N2 (RAN), and N3 (30 % above RAN). Key sustainability indicators, including water productivity (WP), nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), and economic productivity, were analyzed. The DSSAT model demonstrated strong predictive accuracy, with yield differences of only 236 kg ha⁻¹ for rice and 121 kg ha⁻¹ for canola between observed and simulated values. A 40 % reduction in water use increased rice yield to a maximum of 5654 kg ha⁻¹ under I3N2 conditions. Additionally, this reduction in water consumption resulted in a 27 % decrease in production costs, significantly enhancing WP, net benefits, and gross benefits of rice by 46.7 %, 43.1 %, and 47.9 %, respectively. Conversely, a 30 % increase in N application for canola correlated with a 9 % yield increase, underscoring the importance of tailored N strategies. Furthermore, N3 raised WP, NUE, net benefits, and gross benefits of canola by 6.7 %, 1.4 %, 9.1 %, and 9.2 %, respectively, compared with current N application level. Overall, this study illustrates the potential for substantial water savings in rice cultivation while recommending stable or reduced N application levels. These management strategies enhance farm performance, lower production costs, and contribute to the sustainability of rice-canola cropping systems, promoting both agricultural productivity and environmental stewardship.

Groundwater Recharge Response to Reduced Irrigation Pumping: Checkbook Irrigation and the Water Savings Payment Plan

Ongoing investments in irrigation technologies highlight the need to accurately estimate the longevity and magnitude of water savings at the watershed level to avoid the paradox of irrigation efficiency. This paradox arises when irrigation pumping exceeds crop water demand, leading to excess water that is not recovered by the watershed. Comprehensive water accounting from farm to watershed scales is challenging due to spatial variability and inadequate socio-hydrological data. We hypothesize that water savings are short term, as prior studies show rapid recharge responses to surface changes. Precise estimation of these time scales and water savings can aid water managers making decisions. In this study, we examined water savings at three 65-hectare sites in Nebraska with diverse soil textures, management practices, and groundwater depths. Surface geophysics effectively identified in-field variability in soil water content and water flux. A one-dimensional model showed an average 80% agreement with chloride mass balance estimates of deep drainage. Our findings indicate that groundwater response times are short and water savings are modest (1–3 years; 50–900 mm over 10 years) following a 120 mm/year reduction in pumping. However, sandy soils with shallow groundwater show minimal potential for water savings, suggesting limited effectiveness of irrigation efficiency programs in such regions.

IoT-Enabled Air Irrigation: A Data-Driven Approach to Sustainable Agriculture in Water-Scarce Regions

The escalating water scarcity crisis, particularly in arid regions like Maharashtra, India, poses a significant threat to agricultural productivity. Traditional irrigation methods often face challenges related to water wastage and inefficient distribution. To address these issues, this study proposes an innovative IoT-enabled smart “Air Irrigation" system. This novel approach involves dispersing water into the air to create a microclimate with optimal humidity levels, promoting plant growth and reducing water consumption.

Pipeline Leak Identification and Prediction of Urban Water Supply Network System with Deep Learning Artificial Neural Network

Pipeline leakage, which leads to water wastage, financial losses, and contamination, is a significant challenge in urban water supply networks. Leak detection and prediction is urgent to secure the safety of the water supply system. Relaying on deep learning artificial neural networks and a specific optimization algorithm, an intelligential detection approach in identifying the pipeline leaks is proposed. A hydraulic model is initially constructed on the simplified Net2 benchmark pipe network. The District Metering Area (DMA) algorithm and the Cuckoo Search (CS) algorithm are integrated as the DMA-CS algorithm, which is employed for the hydraulic model optimization. Attributing to the suspected leak area identification and the exact leak location, the DMA-CS algorithm possess higher accuracy for pipeline leakage (97.43%) than that of the DMA algorithm (92.67%). The identification pattern of leakage nodes is correlated to the maximum number of leakage points set with the participation of the DMA-CS algorithm, which provide a more accurate pathway for identifying and predicting the specific pipeline leaks.

The Impact of Major Ecological Projects on the Water Yield of Mountain Basins, Northern China

Water yield, one of the most valuable and important ecological indicators, reflects the renewable capacity of regional water resources. The Taihang Mountains are a natural ecological barrier and an important source of water production for the North China Plain. Two large-scale projects involving returning farmland to forest and grassland have significantly changed the distribution of land use in the Taihang Mountains, and also affect the water production characteristics of the Taihang Mountains. Taking the Hutuo River Basin, a typical river in the Taihang Mountainous region, as the study area, the InVEST model is utilized to calculate the spatial and temporal changes in water yield capacity in the Hutuo River basin, and four scenarios were set to judge the impact of different ecological projects on the water yield of the mountainous watershed of the Hutuo River. The results showed that the water yield in the five study periods was 218.58–376.44 mm. The interannual variations in both precipitation and water yield of the study area in the last decade were large. The water yield is mainly concentrated in the northeast region of the upper reaches of the basin, and the smallest is the northwest and central regions of the upper reaches. The water yield in each year in the study area is mainly less than 400 mm, accounting for more than 60% of the study area, and the water yield has shown a large regional expansion in the past 10 years. Grassland has the largest water yield capacity of all land use types, and climate change has basically no effect on the water yield capacity of different land use types. The ecological project of returning farmland to forestland has a negative impact on the water yield capacity, whereas the water yield capacity increases after returning farmland to grassland. The water conservancy project of river training has a negative impact on the water yield capacity of the Hutuo River mountainous basin. The research results provide theoretical data for judging the relationship between vegetation restoration and water yield in mountainous watersheds, a scientific basis for evaluating the implementation effect of major projects, and strong data support for water resource management in the North China Plain.

Study on Functional Effectiveness of Soil and Water Conservation Measures in Rubber Plantations on Hainan Island

In rubber plantations, understory coverage is often disrupted by human activities, which increases the risk of soil erosion under intense rainfall typical of tropical islands. Evaluating the effectiveness of soil and water conservation measures (SWCMs) is crucial for effectively conserving subcanopy resources. This study focused on Hainan Island’s rubber plantations, where nine different SWCMs were implemented, and the runoff and sediment yield were monitored during the rainy season using runoff plots. Through correlation analysis, we identified the primary rainfall characteristic factors leading to soil and water loss on rubber plantation slopes. Path analysis was then used to quantify the impacts of these characteristic factors. The results showed that the SWCMs were significantly more effective in erosion reduction (68.55%) than in runoff reduction (58.95%). Of all the measures, comprehensive SWCMs proved most effective in controlling runoff (71.34%), followed by engineering SWCMs (62.03%) and biological SWCMs (43.51%). Comprehensive SWCMs were also found to be effective in erosion reduction, with a rate of 77.84%, surpassing engineering and biological SWCMs by 7.23% and 20.66%, respectively. Notably, the combination of narrow terraces, contour trenches, and grass planting was the most effective, achieving runoff-reduction rates of 80.94% and erosion-reduction rates of 85.27%. This combination is recommended as a primary prevention method. Rainfall and maximum 30-min intensity (I30) were identified as key variables affecting the efficacy of SWCMs, with rainfall positively correlating with runoff yield and I30 being more closely linked to sediment production. This study provides valuable insights for developing erosion control strategies for sloping garden lands in similar regions and lays theoretical foundations for future ecological restoration projects.

Enhancing highland ecosystems in East Hararge, Ethiopia: evaluating intervention strategies for species diversity, soil organic carbon stock, and carbon sequestration

Forest loss and soil degradation pose significant challenges globally, particularly in developing nations like Ethiopia. Various intervention strategies have been implemented to rehabilitate degraded ecosystems. However, research gaps exist in understanding the most effective approaches, particularly in highland ecosystems. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of different intervention strategies on species diversity and carbon stock in the West Hararghe zone, specifically at the Doba district Hades site. The data was collected from 5 February 2022 to 10 December 2022. The study area was characterized by systematic plots and transects to assess vegetation diversity and soil properties across four intervention categories: (physical; only soil and water conservation structures were used, enclosure; only animal and human interaction was restricted, biological; only different tree species were planted, biophysical; both soil water conservation and tree planting were used). Soil samples were collected at different depths, and biomass estimation was conducted using established formulas. Statistical analyses, including one-way ANOVA and post-hoc tests, were performed to test the level of significance. Biophysical interventions exhibited the highest species diversity index (SDI) (4.65 ± 1.21), followed by enclosure interventions (1.68 ± 0.58), while physical interventions recorded the lowest SDI (0.63 ± 0.18). Enclosure interventions led to the highest soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks at 40.13 t C ha−1, followed by biophysical interventions at 39.26 t C ha−1. Physical interventions resulted in the lowest SOC stocks at 23.9 t C ha−1, underscoring their potential for carbon sequestration. Biophysical interventions, which include both above-ground and below-ground biomass, showed significant carbon stock accumulation, totaling 173.8 t C ha−1 (39.26 t C ha−1 from SOC and 114.6 t C ha−1 from biomass), highlighting their effectiveness in enhancing ecosystem resilience. Other studies support these findings, underscoring the importance of context-specific approaches and long-term monitoring for sustainable land management. Enclosure and biophysical interventions emerge as promising strategies for enhancing species diversity and soil health, as well as promoting carbon sequestration in highland ecosystems. These findings emphasize the need for informed decision-making and community involvement in ecosystem restoration efforts to achieve meaningful and lasting impacts.