Warring States Research Articles

Subsistence strategies and climate change as key factors in the vicinity of the Great Wall in northern China from 500 BCE

Whether, and in what ways, the association between changes in climate and the shifting of imperial frontiers (i.e. the Great Wall) could be mediated by the social responses of major ethnic groups is a question that remains unanswered. Ulanqab is a region in Inner Mongolia associated with a long history of Great Wall construction from the Warring States to the Ming dynasties (~500 BCE–1644 CE) and the Great Wall is often regarded as the boundary of the Central Plains dynasty. This paper uses Ulanqab as a case study to investigate the historical inter-relationship between changes in climate and subsistence strategies on the one hand, and the positioning of the Great Wall on the other. We determined the precise geographical coordinates of the Great Wall in this region during each dynastic period of Chinese history, and compared its location to (1) the empire’s boundaries in each dynasty, (2) evidence that is available on climate change from high-resolution paleo-climate reconstructions and (3) subsistence strategies (whether agriculture, pastoralism, or nomadism) that people adopted as recorded in historical documents. Geo-referenced information from associated archaeological sites was also used to determine the extent of habitation in different areas. We found that during the period of agriculturalist empires (the Han and Ming dynasties), the Great Wall was a frontier between farming and animal husbandry, and was located to the south of the Daqing Mountains. In contrast, during the period of pastoralist empires (the Zhao Kingdom [of the Warring States], Northern Wei and Jurched Jin periods), the Great Wall was the frontier between animal husbandry and nomadism, and was located to the north of the Daqing Mountains. These mountains (42.5°N) seem to have been the northern limit of human settlements that were based on animal husbandry and farming. We observed that, when precipitation and temperature increased, this resulted in an augmentation of agricultural production that most likely facilitated the northward expansion of the agriculturalist peoples. A decrease in precipitation, on the other hand, resulted in the shrinkage of pastures and food, triggering a southward expansion that was characteristic of the pastoralist peoples. This study attempts to provide new insights into the interrelationships among changes in climate, human societies and geopolitics in Chinese history.

Subsistence economy in the eastern Ordos Plateau, China during the late Warring States Period (c. 221 BCE) by stable isotope analysis

This case study presents stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic results of 40 human bones (δ13C value range: −9.7 ‰ ∼ −7.7 ‰, mean ± SD value: −8.6 ± 0.4 ‰; δ15N value range: 6.7 ‰ ∼ 10.0 ‰, mean ± SD value: 8.3 ± 0.7 ‰) from the Chuanzhang cemetery in the eastern Ordos Plateau, China during the late Warring States Period (c. 221 BCE), which indicate that the past populations mainly relied on C4-based food. Despite different archaeological cultures, all past populations in the Chuanzhang cemetery had a similar dietary pattern and subsistence economy. Based on archaeological and historical analysis, people in the Chuanzhang cemetery made their living mainly by millet-based agriculture, supplemented by animal husbandry. Comparing isotopic data published from adjacent and contemporary cemeteries, we can conclude that millet-based agriculture was a consistency and dominated subsistence economy in central-south, Inner Mongolia, which also provided a solid material foundation for the central plains government to control the eastern Ordos Plateau during the late Warring States Period.

Archaeological cognition of the Eastern mausoleum of Qin state using integrated space-ground observation tools

The Eastern Mausoleum of Qin State is a significant component of the Qin Dynasty's royal tombs, reflecting the social development level during the Warring States period (475 BC ~ 221 BC) in China. At the onset of our investigation, we mapped the site's boundaries utilizing Corona satellite imagery and employed the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Normalized Difference Moisture Index (NDMI) to identify archaeological features. Additionally, this study is the first to propose the use of thermal infrared band data from the SDGSAT-1 satellite to explore thermal archaeological traces, demonstrating their viability for archaeological site analysis. Subsequently, electromagnetic (EM) prospection was utilized to validate the presence of an ancient burial chamber passage. Landscape monitoring and analysis of the No.1 Mausoleum were performed using Corona and Google Earth images, revealing the accuracy of the Geomancy Theory of Chinese mausoleums through dynamic remote sensing of surface changes. Furthermore, our employment of space-to-ground observational modalities and resultant Digital Elevation Models (DEM) have been used to provided new insights into the application of Remote Sensing (RS) and Geomancy in archaeology, thereby emphasizing the pivotal role of site selection in heritage preservation. This research underscores the promise of synergistic space-ground observations in both exploiting the archaeological riches of cultural heritage sites and ensuring the enduring conservation of these irreplaceable patrimonial assets.

Exploration of the Extended World of the 13 Characters in Weiliaozi

In addition to the Establishing the first unified empire in East Asia XiHuang (始皇) and HanFei (韩非) active political and military activities, WeiLiao (尉缭) had a great impact on the unification of the six countries of Qin in the late Zhanguo Period with his political purpose and concept of "XingDe (刑德)". This weiliao's military and political rule and its theory were the metric development that later brought about the legalization of territory and system and the perfection of Qin (秦) 18's legal system, which was the driving force for the development of science, technology and civilization. If can grasp the background of the pivotal figures and events in the history of the times and their causes, and rediscover the literature and artifacts with regional characteristics as a scene of a long history, the regions and their boundaries that can be seen in the whole map of the 21st century are not only the territorial boundaries divided and staged. As an integrated media of the behavior product of the human community, its epistemological objects, whether paper or digital, have a great impact on the globalization (the whole area) of the global village.

중국 요동반도 남부 선사시대 적석분의 고고학적 검토

Stone mound tombs, in which the deceased was placed upon the ground and the burial covered by stones, have a restricted spatial distribution and are observed mainly in the southern Liaodong Peninsula of China, the Amnok (Yalu) River basin, and the Han River basin. In this study, analysis was undertaken on the prehistoric stone mound tombs of the southern Liaodong Peninsula of China in order to lay down the foundations for future re-search on the relationship between the stone mound tombs of the different regions. The stone mound tomb was built from the end of the Neolithic Age until the introduc-tion of iron culture exclusively within the southern Liaodong Peninsula region; therefore, it can be regarded as a very conservative and exclusive tomb tradition. Stone mound tombs can be divided according to structure type into linear attached multiple tombs and clusters of single tombs featuring multiple burials. An increase in the latter can be observed over time. A change in burial method from single individual to multiple individual burials in tombs occurred, and cremation took place at multiple individual tombs. Linear attached tombs corresponded with single individual burials, and clustered tombs corresponded with multiple individual burials. Cremation also increased over time. The stone mound tombs of the southern Liaodong Peninsula were popularly used during the Bronze Age but their use came to an end around the period of the Warring States and the Qin-Han transition in the Chinese mainland. The stone mound tombs of Gangouzi, Changbai, in the upper-middle reaches of the Amnok River and the stone mound tombs of Seokchon-dongg, Seoul, are linear attached multiple tombs, the stone mound tombs in Jeongseon, Gwangju, and Yongin are clusters of single tombs featuring multiple burials. Therefore it can be said that there are similarities, in terms of structure and buri-al method, between these tombs of the Amnok and Han River regions and those of the southern Liaodong Peninsula, although a direct casual relationship cannot be posited. This relationship must be further explored within Korean archaeology, as the appearance and termination of the stone mound tomb tradition in the southern Liaodong Peninsula is re-spectively linked to the Neolithic Age to Bronze Age transition and the Bronze Age to Iron Age transition.

Fluid evolution of the Nulasai Cu deposit, Xinjiang, NW China: Evidence from fluid inclusions and O-H-C isotopes

The Nulasai deposit is the earliest Cu mine in Xinjiang, NW China, and has been mined and smelted since the warring state period. Another striking characteristic of the deposit is the high-grade (ave. 1.34 % Cu) with bornite, chalcopyrite and chalcocite as main ore minerals. Through a field and petrographic investigation, three phases of hydrothermal evolution have been recognized at the Nulasai Cu deposit, including the stage I magnetite – quartz ± chalcopyrite ± bornite veins, the stage II calcite – barite ± chalcopyrite ± chalcocite ± pyrite ± bornite veins, and the stage III calcite – barite ± chalcopyrite ± sphalerite ± pyrite ± galena veins. Fluid inclusions of the stage I veins were captured under two-phase condition indicates that existence of both contemporaneous daughter mineral-bearing and liquid-rich fluid inclusions; they have an intermediate-high salinity (11.5 ∼ 38.5 wt% NaCl equiv) and homogenization temperature (266 ∼ 376 °C), with entrapment pressures from 47 to 167 bar (depth of approximately 0.5 to 1.7 km). The coexistence of vapor-rich and liquid-rich fluid inclusions was a defining feature of the stage II fluid inclusions, and they have an intermediate salinity (6.2 ∼ 10.7 wt.%NaCl equiv) and homogenization temperature (211 ∼ 287 °C), with entrapment pressures from 18 to 70 bar (depth of approximately 0.2 to 0.7 km). Fluid inclusions of the stage III veins were captured under two-phase condition, and intermediate-low salinity (3.2 ∼ 9.2 wt.%NaCl equiv) and homogenization temperature (155 ∼ 241 °C), with entrapment pressures of 6 to 32 bar (depth of 0.1 to 0.6 km). According to the stable isotope (O-H-C) data for the three mineralization phases, magmatic water containing organic carbon made up the majority of the early ore-forming fluids, whereas abundant meteoric water has been involved during the late stage of mineralization. Therefore, we suggest that fluid mixture between magmatic water and meteoric water may have led to simultaneous decrease of fluid temperature, salinity and their stable isotope values, and finally facilitates the Cu ore precipitation. This study emphasizes how high-grade Cu deposition in orogenic belts is initiated by fluid dilution.

Rens Krijgsman: <i>Early Chinese Manuscript Collections: Sayings, Memory, Verse, and Knowledge. Studies in the History of Chinese Texts</i>

The book under review is a study of manuscript texts from Warring States and early imperial China (approximately the 5th to 2nd centuries BCE); its specific topic is “manuscript collections,” that is, “single manuscripts containing multiple (originally) distinct texts”. In this book, Rens Krijgsman explores what happened when multiple texts came to be combined on the same material carrier: How were texts selected, organized, and integrated into individual collections? What relationships obtained among these different texts? And how did collections affect reception, including interpretation and perceptions of genre? Cautious not to overstep the evidence, Krijgsman acknowledges that certain basic information about production and use of early manuscript collections is wanting: we do not (and cannot) know who collected the texts and produced the manuscripts, nor can we know who used collections. Wielding impressive command of the technical aspects of early manuscripts and of a broad range of texts, he seeks to extract as much information as possible through a careful yet comprehensive analysis of the material aspects of manuscript collections, their content, and their organization.

Intestinal parasites from Hubei archaeological sites of early China (5th century BCE to 3rd century CE)

Parasite remains in archaeological contexts provide a chance to look at the life of past populations from various perspectives, including dietary behaviors, subsistence activities, constructions of latrines, waste management, and interactions with the surrounding environment. Hubei Province is situated in Central China, boasting a rich history marked by extensive human activity. Previous studies have illuminated the presence of intestinal parasites in mummies of the Warring States Period (5th century BCE to 3rd century BCE) and Han Dynasty (3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE) sites, e.g., Chinese liver flukes (Clonorchis sinensis). This research centers on the analysis of twenty soil samples obtained from the pelvic region of human skeletal remains in seven archaeological sites within Hubei dating from the Warring States Period (5th century BCE to 3rd century BCE) to the Han Dynasty (3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE). The investigation has identified the presence of Chinese liver flukes (Clonorchis sinensis) at the site Gaotai. Several factors may contribute to the parasitic infection among the ancient Hubei population, including a suitable living environment for parasites, consumption of raw or undercooked fish, use of night soil, the rudimentary construction of latrines situated close to pigpens and bodies of water, as well as inadequate feces management. This research, with previous studies, indicates a possible endemic area for Chinese liver fluke in ancient Hubei. Future studies are expected to be conducted on the epidemiology of intestinal parasitic infection among ancient Hubei populations.

Highly radiogenic lead in Shandong bronzes (5th-3rd century BC) and lead mines provides evidence of a metal road from China to Korea and Japan

The origin of the lead materials containing highly radiogenic lead (HRL) isotopes found in bronzes dating back to the 4th–2nd century BCE in Korea and Japan remains enigmatic. The lead isotope analysis conducted on 111 bronzes, slags, and lead ores from Shandong, China, has provided valuable insights into the establishment of the metal trade network in Northeast Asia. The findings reveal a notable transition in the source of lead material used in Shandong from the early to the middle and late Warring States periods. Initially, Shandong bronzes heavily relied on imported lead materials from Central China; however, during the middle and late Warring States periods, there was a shift towards the utilization of HRL (206Pb/204Pb range: 18.6–23.1) and lead with low 206Pb/204Pb ratios, which were uncommon in other regions of China contemporaneously. The isochron relationship (2.29 Ga) between the 207Pb/204Pb-206Pb/204Pb of the HRL bronzes from Shandong, Japan-Korea, and the HRL lead ores of the Xiliang lead mine in Yishui, Shandong, demonstrates a strong correlation, suggesting that the HRL metal materials prevalent in Northeast Asia during the 4th–2nd century BCE likely originated from the Tai-Yi Mountains in Shandong Province.

Rosin reinforcement and protection of the unearthed outer coffin from the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng in Hubei, China

The tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng was unearthed in 1978 at Leiguudun in Suizhou City, Hubei Province, China. This is the largest wooden coffin in rock pit and vertical cave in the Warring States period in China. The large wooden coffin components provide reliable material data for the study of the feudal burial system in the pre-Qin period and have high value. In this paper, the wooden coffin excavated from the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng was studied. By understanding the composition of wood, studying the weight gain rate, shrinkage rate, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and compression resistance, the wood reinforced by rosin and epoxy resin was compared, and the reinforcement effect and principle of the two reinforcement methods were discussed. The study found that the wood properties of rosin reinforced group were better than those of epoxy reinforced group in the aspects of compressive strength, weight gain rate and volume shrinkage rate, and the mechanical properties of wood were significantly improved. In addition, methanol or ethanol can be used to dissolve the rosin shellac in this strengthening process, which can achieve reversible strengthening treatment. The results provide valuable examples and research ideas for the selection of different conservation techniques of large wooden cultural relics unearthed in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River during the Warring States Period.

Virtue before Punishment and Punishment before Reward: a Comparative Study of Two Early Chinese Penal Virtue Theories

Abstract The silk manuscripts of Huang-Lao, unearthed at the Mawangdui Han Tombs, articulate a theory that advocates nurturing penal virtue through the prioritization of virtue before punishment. Many scholars have used Han Fei’s concept of xingde-erbing 刑德二柄 to explain the theory and give it context. Contrasted with Legalism, represented by Shang Yang and Han Fei, which emphasizes rewards and punishments – with Shang Yang advocating punishment before reward – the Huang-Lao doctrine extends beyond this dichotomy. It notably diverges in its exploration of the relationship between the heavens and humanity, as well as theories on motivations underlying human nature. Han Fei’s concept of the xingde-erbing fundamentally aligns with Shang Yang’s approach to governance through the mechanisms of punishment and reward. Moreover, Han Fei’s notion of yindao quanfa 因道全法 posits that sovereigns, by governing according to universal principles and fully understanding the law, can ensure state peace and deter major crimes. However, this concept is distinct from Huang-Lao thought, which does not share the same ideological framework as the reward-punishment methods of Shang Yang and Han Fei. The analogous approach of the prioritization of virtue before punishment found in Guanzi, which stresses that wise and virtuous monarchs govern by aligning their decrees with the natural progression of the seasons, is closely aligned with Huang-Lao philosophy. The present analysis clarifies the longstanding intellectual debates between Huang-Lao and Legalism, affirming the distinctiveness of Huang-Lao’s penal virtue theory and illuminating the conceptualization of the heaven-human relationship during the Warring States period.

Ancient genomes illuminate the demographic history of Shandong over the past two millennia

Shandong province, located in the Lower Yellow River, is one of the birthplaces of ancient Chinese civilization. However, the comprehensive genetic histories of this region have remained largely unknown until now due to a lack of ancient human genomes. Here, we present 21 ancient genomes from Shandong dating from the Warring States period to the Jin-Yuan Dynasties. Unlike the early Neolithic samples from Shandong, the historical samples are most closely related to post-Late Neolithic populations of the Middle Yellow River Basin, suggesting a population turnover in Shandong from the Neolithic Age to the Historical era. In addition, we detect a close genetic affinity between the historical samples in Shandong and present-day Han Chinese, showing long-term genetic stability in Han Chinese at least since the Warring States period.

Book Review: Social Credit: The Warring States of China’s Emerging Data Empire by Vincent Brussee

Book Review: <i>Social Credit: The Warring States of China’s Emerging Data Empire</i> by Vincent Brussee

The Impact of Domestic Japanese Politics on the English East India Company in Japan, 1613–1623

Abstract The English East India Company’s (EIC) enterprise in Japan (1613–1623) is widely recognized as a failure. Scholars of the English-speaking world have emphasized the lack of vendible commodities, the EIC traders’ mismanagement, and Japanese hostility towards Christianity. Nevertheless, these narratives often overlook the political and strategic interests of Japan, in the era of political uncertainty after the long warring-states period. This paper re-examines the EIC traders’ records against recent studies on Japanese politics. The careful observations of political movements surrounding the Siege of Osaka (1614–1615) reveal how the EIC traders were involved in the dynamics of Japanese history. Within the framework of mercantile connections supported by “mutual benefits,” the present study demonstrates how the EIC gradually faced difficulties as the Japanese interests shifted, thus arguing that not only European overseas activity but also the active endeavor of the Asian counterparts significantly influenced global interactions of the early seventeenth century.

65% cover is the sustainable vegetation threshold on the Loess Plateau

Global temperatures will continue to increase in the future. The ∼640,000-km2 Loess Plateau (LP) is a typical arid and semi-arid region in China. Similar regions cover ∼41% of the Earth, and its soils are some of the most severely eroded anywhere in the world. It is very important to understand the vegetation change and its ecological threshold under climate change on the LP for the sustainable development in the Yellow River Basin. However, little is known about how vegetation on the LP will respond to climate change and what is the sustainable threshold level of vegetation cover on the LP. Here we show that the temperature on the LP has risen 0.27 °C per decade over the past 50 years, a rate that is 30% higher than the average warming rate across China. During historical times, vegetation change was regulated by environmental factors and anthropogenic activities. Vegetation coverage was about 53% on the LP from the Xia Dynasty to the Spring and Autumn and Warring States period. Over the past 70 years, however, the environment has gradually improved and the vegetation cover had increased to ∼65% by 2021. We forecast future changes of vegetation cover on the LP in 2030s, in 2050s and in 2070s using SDM (Species Distribution Model) under Low-emission scenarios, Medium-emission scenarios and High-emission scenarios. An average value of vegetation cover under the three emission scenarios will be 64.67%, 62.70% and 61.47%, respectively. According to the historical record and SDM forecasts, the threshold level of vegetation cover on the LP is estimated to be 53–65%. Currently, vegetation cover on the LP has increased to the upper limit of the threshold value (∼65%). We conclude that the risk of ecosystem collapse on the LP will increase with further temperature increases once the vegetated area and density exceed the threshold value. It is urgent to adopt sustainable strategies such as stopping expanding vegetation area and scientifically optimizing the vegetation structure on the LP to improve the ecological sustainability of the Yellow River Basin.

Review of The Tsinghua University Warring States Bamboo Manuscripts: Studies and Translations, vol.1

The Tsinghua University Warring States Bamboo Manuscripts: Studies and Translations, vol. 1, The Yi Zhou shu and Pseudo-Yi Zhou Shu Chapters. By Edward l. Shaughnessy. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press, 2023. Pp. 348. ¥158.

Doctrine of ‘Human Nature is Evil’ – The Fundamental Basis of Xunzi’s Socio-Political Thought

Xunzi 荀子 (third century BCE) was a great Chinese thinker during the Spring and Autumn – Warring States period. He is seen as being represented the last significant figure of Confucian thoughts during the era of Confucius and Mencius. In his works, he critically summarized the intellectual conclusion of pre-Qin scholars and formulated the Confucian and Legalist (Fǎjiā 法家) ideologies to a new paramount, on the basis that Confucianism was as the core. Xunzi’s philosophical doctrine is well-known with idea that “human nature is evil.” The article focuses on analyzing the doctrine of the evil nature to highlight its fundamental role in Xunzi’s political and social thought.

Elite of «Loufan» tribe lived on the Ordos plateau and its connections with Zhao and Qin states

In the late 20 century, archaeologists discovered some burial sites of the barbarian elite in the Ordos Plateau dated to 3rd century BC (late Warring States period). Among them Aluchaideng, Sigoupan M2 and Nalingaotu tombs contained burial goods made of precious metals in the style of Pazyryk and Sagly cultures in Altai-Sayan mountain region. There were finials with figures of an upstanding eagle and a hoofed eagle-headed deer-horned phantastic animal with bird heads at the tips of its horns (“hoofed griffin”), a torc with lying animals facing each other. Other items with ‘hoofed griffin’ images and images of a griffin with deer horns and feline body were collected here. There were also ornaments with images of a ram with the twisted body wrapped around its head, ‘swirling’ griffinheads, rooster heads, waterfowls, full-face ‘smiling’ cat heads, flame-shaped figures with ‘commas’ inside. All of the above mentioned artifacts and images have exclusive analogies in Pazyryk culture. As far back as in 1999, the author suggested that the elite of Ordos nomads of 3rd century BC constituted common religious and, possibly, ethnic unity with the Pazyryk people. New discoveries of Pazyryk culture kurgans in the south of Mongolian Altai support a idea that the Ordos part of the Pazyryk people might have connected with Mountain Altai directly via Alashan and Transaltai Gobi stony deserts bypassing foreign peoples of Mongolian Plateau and the Hexi Corridor. According to Shiji, people (or its elite) occupying the Ordos Plateau since 4th–3rd up to late 2nd centuries BC were known by the name “Loufan”, and in early 3rd century BC the Loufan people were controlled by the state of Zhao. As the written sources and archaeological evidence suggest, in the 3rd century BC, the north-east part of the Ordos Plateau (where the burials in question are located) was the area claimed by Zhao and Qin states; therefore, the barbarian tribes of the north-east of the Ordos Plateau should have been closely intertwined with these states. These relations are proven by Pazyryk-Ordos style artifacts manufactured in Qin and Zhao and found in barbarian tombs, as well as similar objects discovered in the Qin, Zhao and Yan territories. In Sigoupan M2 tomb were found such items bearing Chinese inscriptions of Zhao and Qin states. A large number of similar inscribed artifacts manufactured in Zhao found in Xinzhuantou M30 noble tomb in the Lower Capital of Yan state. It supports the theory that the Ordos barbarians were called Loufan, since as per written sources, Loufan people were included in both Zhao’s and Yan’s administrative systems. Some items identical to the M30 artifacts were found in tombs of Zhao dynasty members in Handan. In tomb of bronze caster of late Warring States period in Xi’an were found ceramic models made for casting bronze or gold decorative plaques in Pazyryk-Ordos style. However, some pictures in this style were represented on artifacts found in the tomb of Qin State Queen Dowager Xia (died in 240 BC). Artifacts with images of “hoofed griffin” are found among Qin state artifacts in Shuihude M47 and Shangwangqun M1 tombs dated to late Warring States period. Moreover, in Xi’an were also found two roof tile-ends with images of a sacred Pazyryk ‘hoofed griffin’ with twisted body. These tiles obviously belonged to luxurious mansion of Warring States period. These artifacts suggest that the Ordos Loufans did not only maintained cultural communication with the Qin state, but also became part of its people.

Decorative art of Russian painted spinning wheels and the art of painted lacquer products in China during the Warring States of Qi Lien

The article is devoted to the comparison of Mezen painted spinning wheels actively produced in Arkhangelsk province (Russia) in the XIX century and objects of Chinese art of Qi Lien painting of the Warring Kingdoms period. In this era, the skill of creating Chinese lacquer products was very developed, and the spinning wheel industry of the XIX century became the basis for the existence of a vital craft for Russian people. The spinning wheels were decorated with colored paintings with repetitive plots. The subjects of the study represent the most important part of the folk art of the two cultures, reflecting at the same time the aesthetic and spiritual preferences of the population. Their prevalence in both cases made it possible to identify the commonality of artistic techniques used by folk craftsmen. Scientific work assigns an important role to the techniques of manufacturing household items that demonstrate the prevailing artistic environment at the time of their regular use. The leading method of research is formal stylistic analysis, revealing characteristic compositional features. Comparative analysis makes it possible to identify similarities and differences in the works of DPI, which make it possible to hypothesize a paradoxical objective community. Considerable attention is also paid to the coloristic analysis and symbolic meaning of the murals. The scientific novelty of the study is due to the presence of a very limited number of sources mentioning the possible similarity of the two fields of folk art, none of which is fully devoted to the formal and stylistic features of objects created by unknown masters. The article closes this gap, aiming to discover specific unifying features. Its tasks become a detailed study of plots, compositions, techniques and materials used. The research allows us to come to the conclusion that the work of both Russian and Chinese artists reflected the main artistic aspirations of contemporaries, who often endowed objects and phenomena with symbolic meaning. There is a noticeable interest in the use of wood, the use of warm shades and the embedding of patterns in compositions. There is a similarity in the desire to reflect reality when including plant and animal motifs in their works. Also, the decorative and planar nature of the painting combines the rich details of the product. The relevance of the research is due to the convergence of Russian and Chinese cultures, so that the study of the issue can contribute to finding new points of spiritual contact.

Reconstructing and tracing the evolution of the road networks in the Haidai region of China during the Bronze and Early Iron Ages

Reconstructing ancient transportation networks is critical to studying past human mobility patterns. China’s Haidai region was a thriving political and economic hub during the Bronze and Early Iron Ages. We used GIS spatial analysis techniques to build a “Settlement Interaction Model” based on archaeological data from the Haidai region during the Bronze and Early Iron Age (Shang Dynasty, Western Zhou Dynasty, Spring & Autumn Period, and Warring States period). The eight-level road network maps with traffic attributes were distinguished based on topography and settlement size. The total lengths of the road networks were estimated to be 19,112 km in the Shang Dynasty, 35,269 km in the Western Zhou Dynasty, 51,555 km in the Spring & Autumn Period, and 77,456 km in the Warring States Period, with the average road flows of 6.6, 31.7, 42.8, and 75.5, respectively. The Z score and one-sample t-test (p < 0.01) confirmed the reliability of the reconstructed road networks. The Shang Dynasty saw the sporadic appearance of simple road routes. More complex routes emerged during the Western Zhou Dynasty and Spring & Autumn Period. The road networks were finally built during the Warring States Period. The development of road networks was closely related to population growth and urbanization. Exploring methods for reconstructing road networks may help us uncover ancient road networks and better understand ancient cultural exchanges.