Warm Temperate Regions Research Articles

Testing the correlation between norstictic acid content and species evolution in theCetraria aculeatagroup in Europe

AbstractMost lichen-forming fungi are characterized by the production of secondary metabolites. Differences in metabolite patterns have frequently served to distinguish lichen taxa with subsequent controversies about the rank of chemical variants (chemotype, variety, subspecies or species). Using a model system, we investigate whether production of norstictic acid within a group of lichenized ascomycetes is correlated with phylogenetic patterns, population differentiation or single and multi-locus haplotypes. Our study is based on DNA sequences of three gene loci (ITS, GPD, mtLSU) together with HPLC (311) and TLC (594) data from a total of 594 samples of three closely related fruticose lichens:Cetraria aculeataandC. muricatawithout norstictic acid, andC. steppaewith norstictic acid. In nature,C. aculeataandC. steppaeoften occur together and the status ofC. steppaeas a separate species has been questioned. Our results show geographical but no phylogenetic structure of norstictic acid production and few significant associations between genetic clusters and the occurrence of norstictic acid. All frequently distributed haplotypes display differences in norstictic acid content. The few associations at the population level are most likely a by-product of spatial genetic structure, because norstictic acid was expressed only in individuals from the Mediterranean-Central Asian part of the study area. We conclude that the production of norstictic acid in theC. aculeatagroup is most likely triggered by the environment (climate, edaphic factors, associated symbionts).Cetraria steppaemight be a different evolutionary lineage restricted to warm temperate regions but it is not uniquely characterized by the presence of norstictic acid.

Recent progress in sweetpotato breeding and cultivars for diverse applications in Japan.

Sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.) is an outcrossing hexaploid that is cultivated in the tropics and warm-temperate regions of the world. Sweetpotato has played an important role as a famine-relief crop during its long history and has recently been reevaluated as a health-promoting food. In Japan, sweetpotato is used for a wide range of applications, such as table use, processed foods, and alcohol and starch production, and two groups at National Agriculture Research Organization (NARO) undertake the breeding of cultivars for these applications. Sweetpotato breeders utilize breeding processes such as grafting for flower induction and the identification of incompatibility groups before crossing to conquer problems peculiar to sweetpotato. For table use, new cultivars with high sugar content were released recently and have become popular among Japanese consumers. New cultivars with high anthocyanin or β-carotene content were released for processed foods and use as colorants. As raw materials, new cultivars with high alcohol yield were released for the production of shochu spirits. In addition, new cultivars with high starch yield and a cultivar containing starch with excellent cold-storage ability were released for starch production. This review deals with recent progress in sweetpotato breeding and cultivars for diverse applications in Japan.

石竹科系统学研究新进展

本文综述了近年来石竹科系统学研究的新进展。石竹科(Caryophyllaceae)约有86属，2200余种，全球广布，主要分布在北半球温带和暖温带地区，具有重要的观赏和药用价值。石竹科可追溯到晚白垩世，其多样化中心位于地中海和伊朗–突雷尼地区。传统上石竹科被分为3个亚科：繁缕亚科(Alsinoideae)、石竹亚科(Caryophylloideae)和指甲草亚科(Paronychioideae)。近来的分子系统学研究表明，从演化关系上分析石竹科传统分类并不合理，因为3亚科均不是单系类群。而最新提出的石竹科11族分类系统则得到较好支持，尽管尚不完善。这11个分支间的系统发育关系基本清楚，但大爪草族(Sperguleae)的单系支持率不高，而且一些大属的范围及单系性仍然存在争议。此外，大属里许多小属的准确位置仍然悬而未决。因此石竹科分类系统亟需进一步修订，其内部一些关键分类群需要重新划分。 New advances of Caryophyllaceae systematics in recent years are reviewed in this paper. Caryophyllaceae, about 2200 species distributed among 86 genera, have a global distribution but primarily of temperate and warm-temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere as well as a key ornamental and medicinal value. Caryophyllaceae date back to the Late Cretaceous, and have a center of diversity in the Mediterranean and Irano-Turanean regions. The family is traditionally subdivided into three subfamilies: Alsinoideae, Caryophylloideae and Paronychioideae. Recent molecular phylogenetic researches suggested that the traditionally recognized classification system has not been evolutionarily reasonable, since none of the three subfamilies is monophyletic. Instead, the currently proposed classification systems for Caryophyllaceae with eleven tribes are better supported despite some imperfection. Although the phylogenetic relationships among the eleven clades are basically distinct, the monophyly of Sperguleae is not well supported. The boundaries and monophyly of the major genera are uncertain. In addition, the placement of the many small genera among the larger genera have hitherto been poorly resolved, so it will be important to further revise the classification systems and delimit its own crucial taxa again.

Oviposition site preference in Black Soldier Fly, Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae), in Artificial Rearing System

In natural conditions, the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae), colonizes in warm temperate regions, and is active in Korea from May through October. Information on black soldier fly rearing, which is affected by seasonal factors in Korea, is limited. This species colonizes and oviposits in a wide variety of decomposing vegetable and animal matter. For mass rearing of black soldier flies, the egg deposition methods are dependent on sunlight and oviposition sites. In this study, we investigated the substrates and oviposition sites preferred by black soldier fly in artificial rearing system. Our results showed that as black soldier flies prefer mating under sunlight, they prefer ovipositing at sites where adequate sunlight and food substrate are available. Further detailed research is required to develop methods for artificially rearing black soldier fly throughout the year in Korea.

Within-species and temperature-related variation in the growth and natural products of the red alga Asparagopsis taxiformis

The red algal genus Asparagopsis (Bonnemaisoniaceae) is a significant resource for bioactive natural products. However, prior to domestication for commercial production, we need to understand the potential variation in growth and concentration of natural products between isolates of Asparagopsis and, beyond that, how these traits are affected by environmental conditions. Ten isolates of Asparagopsis taxiformis were collected from tropical and warm-temperate regions in Queensland, Australia, and identified by molecular barcoding of the mitochondrial intergenic spacer (cox2–3 spacer). The isolates were cultured at three temperatures ranging from the minimum of the warm-temperate region to the maximum of the tropical region. Growth rates and the concentration of natural products varied between the region of origin, between isolates within region and between temperatures. Growth differed by up to 50% between isolates, whereas the concentration of natural products differed more than tenfold. Growth rates were highest at the minimum temperature of 20.2°C, irrespective of region of origin, and were lowest at the maximum temperature of 28.1°C. Natural products were threefold higher in tropical isolates, and this variation was not correlated to growth. Consequently, targeting isolates with high concentrations of natural products should be the primary strategy for the domestication of Asparagopsis for biotechnology applications.

Revision of the leafy liverwort genus Radula (Porellales, Jungermanniopsida) in Baltic and Bitterfeld amber

The phylogenetically isolated leafy liverwort genus Radula comprises ~200 extant species and has a near-worldwide distribution. Most species are obligate or facultative epiphytes on tree bark or leaves in humid, tropical or warm-temperate regions. The fossil record of the genus is limited to a few specimens in amber that all deserve re-examination. Based on a revision of Baltic and Bitterfeld amber inclusions from the Geoscientific Museum Göttingen, the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin, and the collection Gröhn we accept three fossil Radula species, R. baltica sp. nov., R. oblongifolia and R. sphaerocarpoides. Radula baltica is known from only a single piece of Baltic amber, whereas the other two species have been reported in Baltic and Bitterfeld amber. A neotype is designated for Radula oblongifolia. Radula oblongifolia and R. sphaerocarpoides are both morphologically variable, yet we are currently unable to discriminate accessions from the different deposits.

Qualitative and quantitative response of soil organic carbon to 40 years of crop residue incorporation under contrasting nitrogen fertilisation regimes

Crop residue incorporation (RI) is recommended to increase soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks. However, the positive effect on SOC is often reported to be relatively low and alternative use of crop residues, e.g. as a bioenergy source, may be more climate smart. In this context, it is important to understand: (i) the response of SOC stocks to long-term crop residue incorporation; and (ii) the qualitative SOC change, in order to judge the sustainability of this measure. We investigated the effect of 40 years of RI combined with five different nitrogen (N) fertilisation levels on SOC stocks and five SOC fractions differing in turnover times on a clay loam soil in Padua, Italy. The average increase in SOC stock in the 0–30cm soil layer was 3.1Mgha–1 or 6.8%, with no difference between N fertilisation rates. Retention coefficients of residues did not exceed 4% and decreased significantly with increasing N rate (R2=0.49). The effect of RI was higher after 20 years (4.6Mgha–1) than after 40 years, indicating that a new equilibrium has been reached and no further gains in SOC can be expected. Most (92%) of the total SOC was stored in the silt and clay fraction and 93% of the accumulated carbon was also found in this fraction, showing the importance of fine mineral particles for SOC storage, stabilisation and sequestration in arable soils. No change was detected in more labile fractions, indicating complete turnover of the annual residue-derived C in these fractions under a warm humid climate and in a highly base-saturated soil. The applied fractionation was thus useful to elucidate drivers and mechanisms of SOC formation and stabilisation. We conclude that residue incorporation is not a significant management practice affecting soil C storage in warm temperate climatic regions.

Distribution of macrophyte species and habitats in South African estuaries

This study investigated the area coverage and species composition of different habitat types in all estuaries and bioclimatic regions along the coast of South Africa. Estuary habitat covers a total area of 95,657ha. Reeds and sedges (14,732.6ha) were the dominant habitat type overall. Supratidal salt marsh was dominant in the cool temperate region (4869.7ha), intertidal salt marsh in the warm temperate region (2509ha) and reeds and sedges in the subtropical region (10,484ha). In the cool temperate, warm temperate and subtropical regions, the estuaries with the largest areas were the Berg (6799ha), Knysna (2038.7ha) and St Lucia estuaries (40,832.8ha), respectively. The number of macrophyte species per estuary varied from one to 53. Macrophyte species richness was higher in estuaries of the cool and warm temperate zone than that in the subtropical zone. Macrophyte species are distributed in 47 families and the dominant families are the Cyperaceae (18), Chenopodiaceae (14), Juncaceae (5), while 15 other families had only one representative species. The number of species in temporarily open/closed estuaries (TOCEs) and permanently open estuaries (POEs) was higher than that found in other estuary types (river mouths, estuarine bays and lakes). Only Juncus kraussii and Phragmites australis occurred in more than half of South African estuaries. The data are collated in an estuary botanical database that can be accessed for monitoring and conservation planning purposes. These findings have already found application in the management of estuaries in South Africa, the National Biodiversity Assessment and the National Estuary Biodiversity Plan.

Biomass and productivity of fishes in estuaries: aSouthAfrican case study.

Estuaries are well known for their role as nutrient and detrital sinks that stimulate high levels of both primary and secondary production which, in turn, support a large biomass of fishes per unit area. This study reviews available information on coastal fish biomasses (g m-2 wet mass) and productivity (g m-2 wet mass year-1 ) in order to place South African data on these topics into a global perspective. Using biogeographic fish productivity estimates, together with estuarine water area, the approximate annual teleost production in South African estuaries was calculated at 585, 1706 and 13 904 t in the cool temperate, warm temperate and subtropical regions, respectively. Total annual fish production in estuaries on the subcontinent is conservatively estimated at 16 195 t, but this figure is likely to fluctuate widely, depending on recruitment success and annual environmental conditions pertaining to these systems. Approximately 2000 t of fish are estimated to be harvested by fishing activities in South African estuaries each year, which represents c. 12% of annual fish production. Although this figure may appear sustainable, the reality is that there are a few heavily targeted estuary-associated marine species at the top of the food chain that are being overexploited by both anglers and subsistence fishermen. Natural mortalities due to piscivorous fish and bird predation has been estimated at c. 3% of total fish biomass per month in the East Kleinemonde Estuary, but this figure will vary considerably depending on bird abundance and foraging patterns along the coast. In contrast to catches made by the fishermen, piscivorous fishes and birds are targeting mainly juvenile marine fish and small estuarine resident species that are very abundant and generally low down in the food web.

RETRACTED: Preliminary study: Kinetics of oil extraction from basil (Ocimum basilicum) by microwave-assisted hydrodistillation and solvent-free microwave extraction

Abstract Basil ( Ocimum basilicum ) is an annual herb that is widely grown as a commercial ornamental crop in tropical and warm temperate regions of the world including Asia, Africa, Central and South America. Basil oil is of economic significance due to its widespread utilization in food, cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries. The aim of this study is to investigate the potential of MAHD and SFME for the extraction of essential oils from O . basilicum . In this study, the author also attempted to know and verify the kinetics and mechanism of MAHD and SFME of O . basilicum based on second-order model. In this study, MAHD and SFME are used to extract essential oils from O . basilicum . The initial extraction rate, the extraction capacity and the second-order extraction rate constant were calculated using the model. Kinetics of oil extraction from O . basilicum by MAHD and SFME proved that the extraction process was based on the second-order extraction model as the experimentally done in three different steps. The initial extraction rate, h , was 0.0305 g L −1 min −1 for MAHD and 0.1702 g L −1 min −1 for SFME, the extraction capacity, C S , was 0.8371 g L −1 for MAHD and 0.8229 g L −1 for SFME, the second-order extraction rate constant, k , was 0.0436 L g −1 min −1 for MAHD and 0.2513 L g −1 min −1 for SFME and coefficient of determination, R 2 , was 0.9355 for MAHD and 0.9842 for SFME.

Soil quality assessment under different Paulownia fortunei plantations in mid-subtropical China

Purpose Paulownia, one of the fastest growing broad-leaved tree species in the world, is widely distributed in the warm temperate regions of China. However, there are few commercial-scale Paulownia plantations, and there is only limited information available about the most suitable soil quality for Paulownia fortunei growth in mid-subtropical, Hunan Province, China.

Phenetic Diversity and Preliminary Phytochemical Screening of Tephrosia Pers. Spp. (Family Fabaceae) in Sri Lanka

Tephrosia is a genus of medicinally important perennial shrubs or herbs distributed in warm temperate and tropical regions, and belongs to Family Fabaceae. The genus is represented in Sri Lanka with 10 species. The objective of the present study was to interpret interspecific relationships of Tephrosia species in Sri Lanka using phenetic and phytochemical variations. Specimens of six different Tephrosia species including T. purpurea, T. villosa, T. noctiflora, T. tinctoria, T. maxima and T. pumila were collected from their natural habitats in different climatic zones in Sri Lanka. Sixteen floral and vegetative characters of Tephrosia spp. were observed and cluster analysis was performed to interpret phenetic relationships. Herbarium specimens were prepared and voucher specimens were submitted to the National Herbarium, Peradeniya. Phenogram indicated the presence of interspecific relationship with respect to the morphological characters. Air dried leaves were subjected to sequential solvent extractions using solvents with different polarities such as hexane, chloroform and methanol. These extracts were subjected to preliminary phytochemical screening tests to detect the occurrence of carbohydrates, protein and amino acids, glycosides, alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids, tannins, phenolics, and phytosteroids. Phytochemical screening of the different Tephrosia spp. indicated a close relationship among the species and further isolations and purifications are needed to elucidate the chemical constituents to assess the efficacy.

Euphorbia Antiquorum Linn: A Comprehensive Review of Ethnobotany, Phytochemistry and Pharmacology

Medicinal plants are widely used by the traditional practitioners for curing various diseases and ailments in their day-to-day practice. Euphorbia antiquorum Linn is used as a traditional folk medicine in ailments such as inflammation, arthritis, wounds, stomach ache, antioxidant activity, cutaneous infection, diabetes, and as purgative. It looks like a large shrub or small tree. It is one of the largest armed tree Euphorbia’s with an average height of 5-7m, stems are 5-7cm thick, green, glabrous, branching from upper parts; upward curving, segmented. The odour of its latex is pungent and lingering. It is commonly found in village shrubberies throughout the tropical and warm temperate regions of India and Ceylon [3]. It is a plant native to India, Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, has various medicinal value. Phytochemicals studies have shown that the major pharmacologically active constituents are Flavonoid and Triterpenoid. Recent pharmacological study shows that it has antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and anticancer, anti-inflammatory, chemoprotective, antidiabetic and wound healing activity. This review attempts to describe the ethnobotany, pharmacognosy, traditional uses, chemical constituents, and various pharmacologic activities and other aspects of Euphorbia antiquorum linn.

First Atlantic record of the green alga Parvocaulis exiguus from St. Eustatius, Dutch Caribbean

The Polyphysaceae is a well-studied family of green algae occurring in tropical and warm-temperate regions around the world. One of its species, Parvocaulis exiguus (Solms-Laubach) S. Berger et al. (Phycologia 42: 506-561, 2003), has previously been reported from both the Indian and the Pacific Oceans. This report presents the first record of Parvocaulis exiguus from the Atlantic Ocean. It was collected at 18 m depth from rocky substrata surrounded by seagrass off the Dutch Windward Caribbean island St. Eustatius. Owing to its small size and close resemblance to co-occurring species, it is possible that this species has been previously overlooked in the Atlantic. Although Polyphysaceae have been intensively studied in the Caribbean and other Atlantic regions, this is not the case for subtidal algal vegetation on St. Eustatius. Parvocaulis exiguus could have been present for a longer time around St. Eustatius or it could have been introduced with shipping. Future investigations may show if Parvocaulis exiguus will be observed in additional locations in the Caribbean.

New scenario for speciation in the benthic dinoflagellate genus Coolia (Dinophyceae)

In this study, inter- and intraspecific genetic diversity within the marine harmful dinoflagellate genus Coolia Meunier was evaluated using isolates obtained from the tropics to subtropics in both Pacific and Atlantic Ocean basins. The aim was to assess the phylogeographic history of the genus and to clarify the validity of established species including Coolia malayensis. Phylogenetic analysis of the D1-D2 LSU rDNA sequences identified six major lineages (L1–L6) corresponding to the morphospecies Coolia malayensis (L1), C. monotis (L2), C. santacroce (L3), C. palmyrensis (L4), C. tropicalis (L5), and C. canariensis (L6). A median joining network (MJN) of C. malayensis ITS2 rDNA sequences revealed a total of 16 haplotypes; however, no spatial genetic differentiation among populations was observed. These MJN results in conjunction with CBC analysis, rDNA phylogenies and geographical distribution analyses confirm C. malayensis as a distinct species which is globally distributed in the tropical to warm-temperate regions. A molecular clock analysis using ITS2 rDNA revealed the evolutionary history of Coolia dated back to the Mesozoic, and supports the hypothesis that historical vicariant events in the early Cenozoic drove the allopatric differentiation of C. malayensis and C. monotis.

Effect of PAR and temperature on the photosynthesis of the Japanese alga, Ecklonia radicosa (Laminariales), based on field and laboratory measurements

:The effect of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and temperature on the photosynthesis of a Japanese brown alga, Ecklonia radicosa, was determined by using dissolved oxygen sensors and pulse-amplitude modulated (PAM) fluorometry. The effective quantum yield (ΦPSII) of the sporophytes, in a natural population in shallow water, showed a characteristic noontime decline that indicated the influence of high PAR. However, ΦPSII of sporophytes in deeper water (−10 to −20 m) did not appear to be affected and maintained relatively high values of ΦPSII. In laboratory measurements of ΦPSII, after 12 h of continuous low and high PAR (100 and 1000 μmol photon m−2 s−1), a relatively greater decrease in ΦPSII in the high PAR treatment was observed. Furthermore, despite an overnight dark acclimation, the maximum quantum yield (Fv/Fm) under the high PAR treatment did not fully recover. A net photosynthesis–irradiance (P-E) curve was generated at 20°C, which revealed low compensation and saturation irradiances (Ec and Ek) of 14 and 45 μmol photon m−2 s−1, suggesting adaptation to a low PAR environment. Results from experiments to determine the net/gross photosynthesis and dark respiration rates revealed that the maximal gross photosynthetic rates occurred at 27.5°C and were 5.18 μg O2 gww−1 min−1; whereas, the dark respiration rate increased exponentially with a mean value of 1.35 μg O2 gww−1 min−1 at 22°C. Fv/Fm was relatively stable at low temperature, and the highest value (0.73) occurred at 16.5°C. The field survey and laboratory experiments revealed that E. radicosa is well adapted to relatively low PAR and water temperatures typical of warm temperate coastal regions in Japan. The poor response to high PAR and the inability of sporophytes to fully recover overnight from high PAR exposure indicates that the vertical distribution of this species is driven by the PAR environment.

Further records of sipunculans (Sipuncula) from the Mediterranean Sea

Sipunculans collected during several European scientific cruises and expeditions (1991–2010) to different regions of the Mediterranean Sea (from depths ranging 1–2287 m) are recorded. A total of 17 species in nine genera are recognized. Only Nephasoma cf. minutum (Keferstein, 1862) could represent a first record for the Mediterranean Sea in the case of further verification of the identification. Three other species, Apionsoma misakianum (Ikeda, 1904), Aspidosiphon mexicanus (Murina, 1967) and Phascolion tuberculosum Theel, 1875, extend their vertical distribution to deeper bottoms. Significant morphological characters are described and illustrated. Juvenile specimens of Phascolosoma stephensoni (Stephen, 1942) and Aspidosiphon misakiensis Ikeda, 1904 are recorded. They show characteristic cuticular pelagosphera-like papillae over the trunk. A distribution map of Aspidosiphon mexicanus is also included. In general, the sipunculan fauna of the Mediterranean Sea is characterized mostly as a part of the warm-temperate Atlantic region, affected by migration of warm-water species mainly from the Red Sea.

Acute Toxicity, Phytochemistry and Anti-diarrheal Effects of Celtis integrifolia Lam. Aqueous Leaf Extract in Wistar Albino Rats

Celtis integrifolia Lam. plants also known as hackberries or nettle trees are widely spread in warm temperate region of African, Latin America and Asia. The aqueous leaf extract of Celtis integrifolia was obtained by soxhlet extraction using distilled water as a solvent. The aqueous leaf extract was then evaluated for its acute toxicity, phytochemical compounds and anti-diarrheal potential using standard protocol. The results showed that the LD50 of aqueous leaf extract of Celtis integrifolia was greater than 3000 mg/kg following up and down procedure, an indication of low toxicity. The phytochemical analysis of the leaf extract indicates the presence of saponins, reducing sugar, tannins, flavonoids, carbohydrate and cardiac glycoside. The leave extract significantly (p<0.01) reduced the number of unformed faeces in castor oil induced diarrhea in rats. It also significantly (p<0.01; 0.001) reduced the gastrointestinal transit of activated charcoal. Therefore, the aqueous leaf extract of Celtis integrifolia is relatively safe and possesses an anti-diarrheal activity.

Diagnosis, Treatment and Management of Haemonchus contortus in Small Ruminants.

Haemonchus contortus is a highly pathogenic, blood-feeding nematode of small ruminants, and a significant cause of mortalities worldwide. Haemonchosis is a particularly significant threat in tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions, where warm and moist conditions favour the free-living stages, but periodic outbreaks occur more widely during periods of transient environmental favourability. The clinical diagnosis of haemonchosis is based mostly on the detection of anaemia in association with a characteristic epidemiological picture, and confirmed at postmortem by the finding of large numbers of H. contortus in the abomasum. The detection of impending haemonchosis relies chiefly on periodic monitoring for anaemia, including through the 'FAMACHA' conjunctival-colour index, or through faecal worm egg countsand other laboratory procedures. A range of anthelmintics for use against H. contortus is available, but in most endemic situations anthelmintic resistance significantly limits the available treatment options. Effective preventative programmes vary depending on environments and enterprise types, and according to the scale of the haemonchosis risk and the local epidemiology of infections, but should aim to prevent disease outbreaks while maintaining anthelmintic efficacy. Appropriate strategies include animal management programmes to avoid excessive H. contortus challenge, genetic and nutritional approaches to enhance resistance and resilience to infection, and the monitoring of H. contortus infection on an individual animal or flock basis. Specific strategies to manage anthelmintic resistance centre on the appropriate use of effective anthelmintics, and refugia-based treatment schedules. Alternative approaches, such as biological control, may also prove useful, and vaccination against H. contortus appears to have significant potential in control programmes.

Odontochilus nandae (Orchidaceae; Cranichideae; Goodyerinae), a new species from Nepal

Odontochilus Blume (1859: 79) comprises about 40 species distributed from the Himalayas and China through Southeast Asia eastwards to the southwestern Pacific islands (Chen et al. 2009, Pearce &amp; Cribb 2002, Pridgeon et al. 2003). Most species are restricted to tropical and warm-temperate regions. The genus is closely related with Anoectochilus Blume (1825: 411) and most of species were in the past included in that genus because both genera have flowers with pectinate or dentate (rarely smooth) lip flanges. However, Odontochilus is separated from Anoectochilus based on the saccate non-exerted spur that is largely enclosed by the bases of the lateral sepals, whereas Anoectochilus has an exerted conical or cylindrical spur (Pridgeon et al. 2003).