Warm Temperate Areas Research Articles

`Star' Southern Highbush Blueberry

Southern highbush blueberry cultivars are hybrids bred from a gene pool developed by crossing northern highbush cultivars (largely V. corymbosum L.) with one or more low-chill blueberry species native to the southeastern United States. Vaccinium darrowi Camp has been the most widely used source of climatic adaptation to warm areas. Vaccinium darrowi is a low-growing, late-ripening species with small fruit, and several generations of backcrossing, intercrossing, and selection are normally needed to produce upright-growing cultivars with berries large enough for commercial exploitation. The principal value of southern highbush blueberry cultivars is that they can be cultivated where the mean temperature of the three coldest months is as high as 15 °C, whereas northern highbush blueberry cultivars are not consistently productive where mean temperatures for these months exceed 10 °C. The wide range of northern highbush cultivars and the wide geographic range over which they are cultivated allows fresh fruit harvest from midMay through the end of September in the northern hemisphere and from mid-November through the end of March in the southern hemisphere. The remaining gaps in the harvest year can be filled by growing southern highbush cultivars in areas where temperatures are warm in late winter and early spring. Lowchill southern highbush cultivars are needed in these areas, because climates that are warm enough to promote early berry development in late winter and early spring do not provide sufficient chill units during winter to break dormancy in high-chill cultivars. Southern highbush cultivars can provide fresh blueberries in April and early May in the northern hemisphere and in October and early November in the southern hemisphere. They also make it possible for millions of people living in subtropical and warm-temperate areas to produce blueberries in home gardens or for local markets. ‘Sharpblue’ and ‘Flordablue’, the first southern highbush blueberry cultivars, were released by the Univ. of Florida in 1975 (Sharpe and Sherman, 1976), and other low-chill blueberry cultivars have subsequently been re

Comparison of pollen sampling with a Burkard Spore Trap and a Tauber Trap in a warm temperate climate

Aerobiological data have been widely used by many scientists, including those that study modern flora as well as those wishing to reconstruct past vegetational associations. Burkard (Hirst-type) volumetric spore traps are widely used instruments for studying airborne pollen, while Tauber traps are typically used to analyze pollen deposition. The present study compared the pollen collected by these two methods in Tulsa, Oklahoma a warm temperate area with year-round pollen. There was a strong correlation between the pollen influx from the Tauber traps and cumulative sum of average daily airborne pollen concentrations recorded with the Burkard spore trap over the course of 12 months from 1 Feb 1997 through 1 Feb 1998. The correlation coefficient between all taxa over the 12 months was 0.914; while the correlation coefficient for the monthly totals was 0.972. The data showed that both methods reflected local anemophilous vegetation although variations occurred in the prevalence recorded by both samplers.

Hydrogeologic and Geochemical Factors Required for the Development of Carolina Bays Along the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico Coastal Plain, USA

More than 60 years of intense study and debate have yet to resolve the origin of the Carolina Bays. Carolina Bays are circular to elliptical depressions located along the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Coastal Plains. Proposed processes of initiation and development of these karst-like features include meteorite impacts, substrate dissolution, wind, ice, marine waves and currents. Based on field studies throughout the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains and on review of coastal plain literature, we propose that Carolina Bays initially developed as silica-karst features. During Pleistocene sea-level lowstands, water tables in the Atlantic Coastal Plain were up to 30 m lower than today. Large volumes of surface water collected in local topographic lows and/or areas of enhanced permeability and infiltrated through sandy substrates of the low-relief coastal plain. Localized infiltration of phreatic water induced extensive desilicification of the sandy and clayey substrates, resulting in volume loss and development of karst-like depressions. Particularly relevant to initial bay development was alteration of kaolinite to gibbsite, which can produce a 34-percent loss in clay material volume, and concurrent dissolution of iron oxide. The initial silica-karst depressions along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts were later modified by eolian and, perhaps, ice-push processes, which enhanced their elliptical form. The subsequent Holocene rise in sea level caused ground-water levels in the coastal plain to equilibrate near the present-day land surface. This curtailed geochemical weathering, as well as eolian and ice-related processes. Ground-water saturation partially reversed chemical reactions associated with intensive weathering of clays beneath the bays, masking evidence of the severe leaching that occurred during their initial formation. Silica-karst features, similar to Carolina Bays in their initial stages of development, are common geologic features. Moreover, silica-karst processes are active today in warm temperate, subtropical, and tropical areas in sandy substrates where groundwater levels are well below the ground surface and can cause subsidence or disrupt developing wetlands.

Fruit color and fruit size of bird-disseminated plants in Japan

Fruit color, fruit size and phenology of bird-disseminated plants were examined in different climatic zones of Japan and the relationships between the plants and frugivorous birds were disscussed. Black fruit was the most common in warm-temperate areas and red was the most common in cool-temperate and subarctic zones. Red was more dominant in the lower layer of the forests in all climatic zones. Bicolor fruits were frequent in trees and were not found in herbs. Both in warm- and cool-temperate zones conspicuous fruits which are red and bicolored display were more frequent in summer than in winter. The diameter of most fruits were 4–11 mm. Fruits in warm-temperate were somewhat bigger than those in cooltemperate zone. In forest strata the fruits of shrubs were smaller than those of trees and herbs in width. However I found no relationships between fruit size and fruit color. The frugivorous birds could have influenced not only the evolution of seasonal differences in the proportion of fruit color between warm-temperate and cool-temperate region, but also affect the fruit size.

A New Section and Two New Species of Tragia (Euphorbiaceae) from the Venezuelan Guayana and French Guiana

A New Section and Two New Species of Tragia (Euphorbiaceae) from the Venezuelan Guayana and French Guiana

The distribution and development of Late Oligocene and Early Miocene reticulate globigerines in Australia

Globigerinoides is represented by both hispid ( Gds. primordius) and reticulate ( Gds. quadrilobatus) forms at levels below the first appearance (FA) of Globoquadrina dehiscens dehiscens, that is within Zone N.4A, in northern Australia, and at levels approximating the FA of Gq. dehiscens dehiscens, that is at the base of Zone N.4B, in southern Australia. These levels are below the FA of Globigerina (Globoturborotalita) woodi woodi, an event which occurs above the FA of Gq. dehiscens dehiscens, within the upper part of Zone N.4B. The presence of Globigerinoides quadrilobatus in southern Australia coincides with an extra-tropical excursion of larger benthic foraminiferids together with the warm water planktic form Globorotalia (Fohsella) kugleri, and disappears with the warm water forms within the basal part of the range of Ga. (Go.) woodi woodi; Globigerinoides quadrilobatus reappears within Zone N.6, above the FA of Ga. (Go.) woodi connecta. In northern Australia Globigerinoides quadrilobatus is continuously present throughout the Early Miocene as are the larger benthic foraminiferids. During the Early Miocene, populations of Globigerinoides throughout Australia (and elsewhere) show wide phenotypic variation, a feature of both Ga. (Go.) woodi and Ga. (Ga.) praebulloides populations. Based on oxygen isotope data Globigerinoides quadrilobatus has been a warm, shallow water dweller throughout its history, an attribute supported by its co-occurrence with other warm water species. Ga. (Go.) woodi, when it occurs with Globigerinoides, dwelt at intermediate water depths, and so at lower temperatures; its published biogeography supports a warm temperate distribution. Present day distribution of the Ga. (Ga.) bulloides group also supports a temperate biogeographic range, although it is typical of upwelling zones in subtropical and tropical areas. Thus, during the Early Miocene the biogeographic distribution of the reticulate globigerines was closely related to temperature, with those with spiral apertures typical of subtropical to tropical conditions, and those without these apertures were typical of warm temperate areas. Modern species of Globigerinoides maintain a symbiotic relationship with algae, but this relationship is absent in present day representatives of both Ga. (Ga.) bulloides and Ga. (Globoturborotalita). Such a relationship likely existed throughout the history of Globigerinoides. The presence of symbionts in Ga. (Ga.) falconensis, a close warm water relative of Ga. (Ga.) bulloides, suggests that a similar relationship may have developed in warm water populations of Ga. (Ga.) praebulloides, the probable ancestral form. Following this reasoning, one of the published proposals that Ga. (Ga.) praebulloides gave rise to the Globigerinoides quadrilobatus group is supported. This contrasts with the views of other workers that Ga. (Go.) woodi was the ancestral form. However, the presence of reticulate Globigerinoides at levels prior to the FA of Ga. (Go.) woodi strongly supports the first proposal. However, there also seems to be a demonstrable evolutionary relationship between Ga. (Go.) woodi and Globigerinoides quadrilobatus suggesting that there may have been a genetic relationship between the two species. In order to overcome this duality of phylogeny I suggest that Ga. (Go.) woodi is a cool water ecomorph of Globigerinoides quadrilobatus. Support for this proposal comes from the sudden appearance of Ga. (Go.) woodi and its lack of other ancestral forms.

The structure, reproduction and taxonomy of Vidalia and Osmundaria (Rhodophyta, Rhodomelaceae)

Comprises species occurring mostly in subtidal habitats in tropical, subtropical and warm-temperate areas of the world. An analysis of the type species, V. spiralis (Sonder) Lamouroux ex J. Agardh, a species from Australia, establishes basic characters for distinguishing species in the genus. These characters are (1) branching patterns of thalli, (2) flat blades that may be spiralled on their axis, (3) width of the blade, (4) primary or secondary derivation of sterile and fertile branchlets and (5) position of sterile and fertile branchlets on the thalli. Application of the latter two characters provides an important basic method for separation of species into three major groups. Osmundaria, a genus known only in southern Australia, was studied in relation to Vidalia, and its separation from the Vidalia assemblage is not accepted. Species of Vidalia therefore are transferred to the older genus name, Osmundaria. Two new species, Osmundaria papenfussii and Osmundaria oliveae are described from Natal. Confusion in the usage of the epithet, Vidalia fimbriala Brown ex Turner has been clarified, and Vidalia gregaria Falkenberg, described as an epiphyte on Osmundaria pro/ifera Lamouroux, is revealed to be young branches of the host, Osmundaria prolifera.

The deep-water macroalgal community of the East Florida continental shelf (USA)

The deep-water macroalgal community of the continental shelf off the east coast of Florida was sampled by lock-out divers from two research submersibles as part of the most detailed year-round study of a macroalgal community extending below routine SCUBA depths. A total of 208 taxa (excluding crustose corallines) were recorded; of these, 42 (20.2%), 19 (9.1%), and 147 (70.7%) belonged to the Chlorophyta, Phaeophyta, and Rhodophyta, respectively. Taxonomic diversity was maximal during late spring and summer and minimal during late fall and winter. The number of reproductive taxa closely followed the number of taxa present; when reproductive frequency was expressed as a percentage of the species present during each month, two peaks (January and August) were observed. Most perennial species had considerable depth ranges, with the greatest number of taxa observed from 31 to 40 m in depth. Although most of the taxa present also grow in shallow water (i.e. <10 m), there were some species whose distribution is limited to deeper water. The latter are strongly dominated by rhodophytes. This community has a strong tropical affinity, but over half the taxa occur in warm-temperate areas. Forty-two new records (20% of the taxa identified) for Florida were listed; this includes 15 taxa which previously had been considered distributional disjuncts in this area. The phaeophyteHalopteris filicina is a new addition to the flora of the western Atlantic. Although more studies are needed, it appears that the deep-water flora may be relatively continuous over a large portion of the tropical and subtropical western North Atlantic. The traditional practice of considering Cape Canaveral as a biogeographical boundary may only be appropriate for shallow water. This study demonstrates the need for additional floristic work on macroalgal communities, especially from deep water, before more detailed biogeographical analyses can be performed and suggests that deep-water species could be important in experimental approaches to macroalgal biogeography.

Morphological and physiological studies of isolates ofHendersonula toruloideaNattrass cultured from human skin and nail samples

Primary isolates from 128 cases of superficial Hendersonula toruloidea infection were invariably of the hyphomycete Scytalidium synanamorph of the fungus, characterized by the formation of dematiaceous fission arthroconidia. Three distinct colonial forms were recognized which were stable on repeated sub-culture. The growth rates of four isolates of each colonial form were determined at 25 degrees C, 30 degrees C, 37 degrees C and 40 degrees C. The production of the coelomycete synanamorph was investigated on a range of agar and natural media. Pycnidial or stromatal conidiomata were observed in representatives of two of the three colonial forms. All the infections were diagnosed in patients who had originated from, or resided in tropical, subtropical or warm temperate areas and the distribution of the different colonial forms was significantly related to the geographical/racial origins of the patients.

Photoinhibition at Chilling Temperatures

Relative susceptibilities of chilled leaves to photoinhibition were determined for 15 species of crop annuals showing a wide range of chilling tolerance. Leaf tissue at 7°C was exposed to a moderate photon irradiance of 300 �mol m-2 s-1 and photoinhibition was measured by the decrease in chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm) measured at 77K. All chilling-resistant plants surveyed (barley, broad bean, oat, pea and wheat) were photoinhibited at chilling temperatures. The chilling-sensitive plants (bean, cucumber, lablab, maize, pearl millet, pigeon pea, sesame, sorghum and tomato) were more susceptible, the mean of values for susceptibility to photoinhibition being twice that of the chilling-resistant plants. Rice, however, showed a tolerance to photoinhibition at 7°C comparable to that of some of the chilling- resistant plants. Indica rices were more susceptible than japonica rices. Photoinhibition increased with decreasing temperature and with increasing photon irradiance in both the chilling-resistant and sensitive plants. In pea and cucumber, photoinhibition at 7°C was correlated linearly with the decrease in photosystem II activity assayed in chloroplast thylakoids isolated from similarly treated tissue. Relative tolerances of leaves of the same 15 species to chilling injury in the dark were also measured. No linear correlation was found between susceptibility of chilled leaves to photoinhibition and susceptibility to dark chilling injury. The pattern of differences between species for photoinhibition at 7°C was largely preserved when photoinhibitory treatments were given at a non-chilling temperature (21°C) by increasing the photon irradiance to 900 �mol m-2 s-1. We conclude that, while the chilling-sensitive plants were generally more susceptible than the chilling-resistant ones to photoinhibition at low temperatures, this arose from a greater sensitivity to the irradiance rather than from the chilling sensitivity. Photoinhibition associated with low temperatures was also demonstrated in the tropical fruit species, banana, pawpaw and Monstera. Low values of Fv/Fm recorded in leaves exposed to full sunlight during the winter month of July (range 0.39-0.56 compared with 0.70-0.79 in January) indicated that photoinhibition could adversely affect some tropical perennial fruit species cultivated in semitropical or warm temperate areas experiencing recurrent cool to cold winters.

Haliphron atlanticusSteenstrup (Cephalopoda, Octopoda) from the coast of Norway

Abstract Morphological characteristics of two large females of Haliphron atlanticus STEENSTRUP (= Alloposus mollis VERRILL) are described and illustrated. The soft and gelatinous body, the shape of the mantle aperture, the formation of the funnel and adhesive apparatus, and the straplike septa connecting the mantle and funnel and containing the stellate ganglion are characteristic features of the species. One specimen, weighing 41 kg after fixation, was found dead near Bergen (60°14′ N, 5°16′ E) in May 1983. The other, weighing 25 kg after being frozen, was caught alive at 210 m off Vestvagoy in the Lofoten archipelago (68°20′ N. 14°14′ E) in November 1984. It was possibly feeding on the prawn, Pandalus borealis KRoYER. Both specimens had arms partly missing and web torn, but were otherwise well preserved. Previous records of H. atlanticus are confined to tropical and warm-temperate areas. The present findings represent the first records from north of 42° N.

Predation in time and space: peeling and drilling in terebrid gastropods

Two types of predation (shell breakage at the lip by calappid crabs and drilling by gastropods) were studied in more than 6000 Recent and 1500 fossil terebrid gastropods. The occurrence of lip-peeling was assessed by the frequency of shell repair, defined as the number of repaired injuries divided by the total number of shells in a sample. This frequency is interpreted as a measure of the demonstrated importance of the shell as a protective device against peeling. In the Recent fauna, frequencies of repair are highest in the tropical Indo-West-Pacific, intermediate in tropical America, and lowest in warm-temperate areas. When comparisons are restricted to particular size classes, these geographical differences become blurred, especially among smaller shells. Slender, many-whorled species have significantly lower frequencies of repair than do terebrids with more compact shells. Samples of Terebra affinis from atolls have fewer repairs than do those from high islands or continental shores. Among fossils, there is no difference in repair between Paleogene and Neogene samples. In the Miocene, warm-temperate terebrids had frequencies of repair similar to those of tropical species. The frequency of repair is loosely correlated with the number of species of shell-peeling calappid crabs. Frequencies of drilling have been at high modern levels since Eocene time. Incomplete drill-holes are common in large Recent species, and suggest that the terebrid shell is well adapted to withstand attacks by naticid gastropods. The results of this study are consistent with those of architectural analyses of soft-bottom gastropod assemblages and with other studies on predation of gastropods.

Corticium rolfsii . [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria

Abstract A description is provided for Corticium rolfsii . Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On Arachis, Phaseolus and many other legumes, Beta, Brassica, Cannabis, Cinchona, Citrus, Cucumis, Ficus , Lycopersicon, Musa, Oryza, Solanum, Saccharum and a wide variety of other crops, ornamental plants and weeds. DISEASE: Stem rot, foot rot, crown rot, sclerotium wilt, blight. Infection commonly commences at about soil level and extends a few cm above and below. Epidermis, cortex and stele are all invaded; necrosis precedes penetration. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Widespread in moist tropics and warm temperate areas; present in most of Africa and southern Asia; Australasia; Spain, Italy and through central Europe to southern Sweden; North America (particularly important in southern USA), Central America and the West Indies and much of S. America (CMI Map 311, ed. 3, 1969). TRANSMISSION: A facultative parasite, capable of extensive saprophytic growth in surface layers of soil. Persists on crop residues and weed hosts. The sclerotia are disseminated by cultural practices, wind and water; a proportion survive passage through sheep and cattle. They occur as contaminants amongst seed and the fungus is occasionally seed-borne, e.g. in groundnut and watermelon, or present on vegetative propagation material. The perfect state is infrequent in the field and is probably not of primary importance in disease transmission.

Time-Transgressive Aspects of Some Critical Planktonic Species: ABSTRACT

The origin of Globigerina bulloides in temperate areas occurs in the middle Miocene in Neogene zones 9 or 10, whereas in tropical sections it appears in the upper Miocene in Neogene zones 16 or 17, a cool-water cycle. In both cases it could be represented as being derived from Globigerina praebulloides. The origin of the temperate Globorotalia (Turborotalia) pachyderma, dextrally coiled, occurs in Neogene zone 13 or just below in temperate areas, whereas it invaded subtropical areas only during the principal cold cycles subsequent to deposition of zone 13. Forms of Neogloboquadrina lacking umbilical toothlike structures such as N. dutertrei subcretacea appeared in tropical and warm temperate areas in the late Miocene. Neogloboquadrina dutertrei dutertrei with umbilical toothlike structures appeared near the end of Pliocene or at the beginning of Pleistocene time in Neogene zone 22 in tropical areas, whereas the primitive forms continued into the Holocene in temperate areas. Thus, there is an apparent extinction datum plane of the primitive form near the end of Neogene zone 21 deposition in tropical areas but not in temperate areas. Coiling characteristics and form ratios distinguish this group from Globorotalia (Turborotalia) pachyderma. Praeorbulina spp. appear initially in the lower Miocene Neogene zone 8 in tropical areas; isomorphs of this genus appear initially in temperate areas in Neogene zones 11 or 12. The earlier forms originated from species of Globigerinoides whereas those in temperate areas appear to have originated from Globigerina. Ecologic-evolutionary relations are responsible for these and many other kinds of time-transgressive aspects of planktonic datum planes. End_of_Article - Last_Page 330------------

Restrictions of the "Orbulina" Datum

The 9Orbulina9 is probably a dependable time line at the base of the Burdigalian [Miocene] in deposits of deep-water origin within tropical and warm-temperate areas. 9Orbulina9 developed in post-Burdigalian time in temperate areas. Faunal evidence and potassium/argon dates corroborate the approximate correlation of the Saucesian stage of California with the Burdigalian stage of Europe. Orbulina universa is shown to be a final spherical chamber associated with different species and genera of globigerinids.

Restrictions of the Orbulinid Datum: ABSTRACT

Faunal evidence and potassium/argon dates suggest the approximate correlation of the Saucesian Stage of California with the Burdigalian Stage of Europe. The Orbulinid datum marks the approximate base of the Burdigalian Stage in deposits of deep-water origin within tropical and warm temperate areas. Orbulinids appear well above the base of the Burdigalian and Saucesian in temperate areas. Thus, it is suggested that it required from one to about two stages for orbulinids to adapt to the temperate zone after their initial appearance in the tropics. End_of_Article - Last_Page 1079------------

Ceylon spinach (Basella rubra)

Although many pot-herbs can be cultivated in the tropies and subtropies, especially in areas with cool, dry seasons, true spinach often performls poorly in such regions because of insect pests and temperatures that are generally too high. One of the most vigorously growing and widely adapted substitutes is Ceylon spinach or Malabar nightshade. Ceylon spinach, Basella rutbra L. (B. alba L.), belongs to the family Basellaceae. Formerly it was included in the Chenopodiaceae, which includes true spinach (Spin-acia oleracea L.) and other pot-herbs. It is widely distributed in the tropics and often is cultivated in warm temperate areas of both the Eastern and Western Heiimispheres. It is usually considered native of southern Asia. The plant is an annual or biennial, climbing herb, usually with alternate, entire leaves that vary in size, shape and color according to the variety. The small, bisexual flowers are white, red or violet in simple axillary or terniinal compound spikes. Only one species is listed by Bailey (1), but it includes several variations that once were named as species. Basella alba, with white flowers, and B. cordifolia, with heart-shaped leaves are the excluded names most often encountered in horticultural literature. A cultivar with variegated foliage is nlentioned for use as an ornamental. A closely related plant perhaps more familiar to many is the Madeira or Mignonette Vine, Anredera cordiifolia (Ten.) Steen. (Botissingaultia baselloides auct. non HBK.). This tender, herbaceous perennial is cultivated for its masses of fragrant flowers produced in late summer and fall. Writing before 1899, Watt (20) states that Ceylon spinach is cultivated in almost every part of India, especially in lower Bengal and Assam, where it is an important

Cenozoic Planktonic Foraminiferal Zonation: ABSTRACT

Modern planktonic foraminiferal ecology serves to define limitations of Cenozoic zonation. Modern tropical species are abundant and diverse, temperate zone species are sparse and diverse, and cool temperate and polar areas have an extreme abundance of very few species. Keeled globorotaloids are restricted to water temperatures higher than about 17° C., non-keeled globorotaloids to waters warmer than about 9° C., and there are no globorotaloids in polar regions. Thus, a keeled planktonic line is one criterion for the recognition of boundaries of tropical and warm temperate areas in the Cretaceous and Cenozoic. Large heavy tests of planktonic species are indicative of bathyal environments. Planktonic zonation for the Cenozoic is considered to have general worldwide uniformity and thus provides a means of recognizing the standard European stages in open marine deeper-water facies of tropical areas of the world. General planktonic parameters include: (1) the development of keeled globorotaloids in the Paleocene and their decline and disappearance in the Middle Eocene; (2) a second development of keeled globorotaloids in the Burdigalian and their continued dominance into the Recent; and (3) the recognition of important times of appearance of specific groups--the Globigerinoides triloba datum at the base of the Aquitanian, the Orbulina datum at the base of the Burdigalian, the Globorotalia menardii datum near the top of the Burdigalian, and the Sphaeroidinella dehiscens dat m at the base of the Pliocene. End_of_Article - Last_Page 1768------------

Warm temperate region and coastal-water area in the marine bio-geography of the shallow sea system around the Japanese islands

It has been suggested in a previous paper (1957) that, on the Pacific side of the Japanese islands, the subtropical region directly adjoins the temperate (s.s.) region without a warm temperate region between, but that warm temperate areas are found in isolated, more or less sheltered places, where the coastal water is predominant. The Inland Sea (Seto-naikai) is recognizable as a represen tative of these enclosed warm temperate areas.In contrast to the Pacific side, no such sharp boundary between the subtropical and temperate regions can be found on the Japan Sea side, where very strong ocean currents like the Kuroshio and Oyashio are lacking. The southern part of this coast is recognizable as a warm temperate region.The marine bio-geographies of the Pacific and Japan Sea sides of the Japanese islands are considered to be respectively comparable to those of the American and European coasts of the North Atlantic. The possibility is suggested that, on the American coast, the subtropical region comes into direct contact with the temperate (s.s.) region at Cape Hatteras, and that the warm temperate areas may be confined to sheltered, coastal-water areas on the coast between Cape Canaveral and Cape Cod, which has been recognized as the Transatlantic bio-geographical province.

STUDIES IN PEDOGENESIS IN NEW SOUTH WALES

Summary A field and laboratory examination has been made of the soils of the Pilliga district of New South Wales, with particular reference to those showing solonetzic morphology. The area consists largely of alluvium from the Jurassic sandstones of the Warrumbungle Range, and grading diagrams for the sandfraction suggest that distribution of the soils follows the changes in depositional pattern. It seems probable that a soil type can occur, morphologically and chemically similar to that which has been described as solodized-solonetz without ever having been through the stages of solontchak and solonetz. The conditions under which such a profile could develop are: (a) a semi-arid to sub-humid climate, where the mean soil temperature is too high to permit either accumulation of organic matter or the long persistence in the groundwater of organic compounds capable of chelation; (b) a parent material sufficiently coarse textured to allow movement of clay and of fine silt simply by the mechanical action of percolating water, but not so coarse that the clay is washed completely out of the column; (c) a parent material extremely low in calcium-bearing minerals. This condition would obviously be met when the parent material of the present soil was part of a fossil profile formed in a humid or strongly leaching environment; (d) the presence of vegetation capable of absorbing silica from the soil water and returning it to the surface in leaf fall in a sufficiently finely divided form; (e) a source of sodium ions. The solodized-solonetz could consequently be considered as the normal soil found on coarse-textured parent material in the semi-arid to sub-humid zone of the warm temperate and sub-tropical areas.