War-related Events Research Articles

Exposure to Political Violence and Psychological Well-being in Bosnian Adolescents: A Mixed Method Approach

Previous research on political violence has shown an inverse relationship between overall exposure and psychological well-being. The aim of this study was to examine this relationship in more detail by exploring the impact of specific types of war-related events upon psychological well-being, as well as the role of social and political context in moderating these outcomes. The psychological well-being of 337 Bosnian adolescents living in two towns on opposite sides of the war was assessed using the Hopkins Symptom Checklist-25 (HSCL-25) and the Harvard Trauma Questionnaire (HTQ). Based on the combined symptom scores, and in-depth interviews regarding life history, war experiences, and subjective experience of psychological well-being a gender-matched sub-sample of 40 adolescents was selected and completed a 45-item trauma event scale. Results from the quantitative and qualitative analyses showed that the relationship between exposure, displacement and well-being varied significantly depending on the community in which the adolescents lived. Specific meanings given to different types of war events were important in moderating their effect. Living in a neglected, isolated and depressed community, worry about school performance, missing friends and family breakdown could have as significant an effect on well-being as exposure to war-related events. The findings demonstrate the need to take social context and meaning of events into account when examining the impact of war exposure on psychological well-being.

Memory for Fact, Fiction, and Misinformation

Media coverage of the 2003 Iraq War frequently contained corrections and retractions of earlier information. For example, claims that Iraqi forces executed coalition prisoners of war after they surrendered were retracted the day after the claims were made. Similarly, tentative initial reports about the discovery of weapons of mass destruction were all later disconfirmed. We investigated the effects of these retractions and disconfirmations on people's memory for and beliefs about war-related events in two coalition countries (Australia and the United States) and one country that opposed the war (Germany). Participants were queried about (a) true events, (b) events initially presented as fact but subsequently retracted, and (c) fictional events. Participants in the United States did not show sensitivity to the correction of misinformation, whereas participants in Australia and Germany discounted corrected misinformation. Our results are consistent with previous findings in that the differences between samples reflect greater suspicion about the motives underlying the war among people in Australia and Germany than among people in the United States.

Development of an inventory for measuring war-related events in refugees

Knowledge about the range of war-related events experienced by refugees is lacking. This initial report of the New Mexico Refugee Project (NMRP) details the development of the Comprehensive Trauma Inventory (CTI), the first empirically developed instrument that measures war-related events in community-dwelling refugees. Both expert and participant methods using quantitative and qualitative approaches were used to broaden knowledge about the range of war-related experiences in refugees. The CTI-164, developed by expert rational methods, was administered to 36 Kurdish and 31 Vietnamese refugees along with an in-depth interview (IDI) and five other quantitative instruments measuring symptoms, impairment, and social support. Focus groups (FGs) were also conducted. Text and descriptive analyses, t tests, and correlations were used to analyze data. Refugees reported an average of 150 war-related events on the CTI-164, more than in other studies. IDIs and FGs revealed 123 war-related events and event types that were not on the CTI-164 or other measures currently used. Refugees reported multiple chronic symptoms and significant impairment in daily functioning. The CTI-164 was modestly correlated with symptoms and impairment. The definable number and type of war-related events endured by refugees is greater than in previously published research. Expert rational methods are not adequate to develop an instrument to define war-related events and measure their association with health outcomes. Participatory and qualitative methods reveal events and event types that have not been previously defined. The CTI warrants further testing after revision to incorporate items and event types determined by qualitative methods.

The evacuation of British children during World War II: A preliminary investigation into the long-term psychological effects

The authors used attachment theory to hypothesize about the possible long-term psychological effects of evacuation during World War II, focusing on children who were evacuated unaccompanied by their parents. The study aimed to establish whether this experience had long-term effects on psychological well-being, and to investigate mediating and moderating factors. The study utilized a retrospective non-randomized design, comparing 169 former evacuees with 43 people who were children during the war but not evacuated. No differences between the groups were found in terms of demographic variables or exposure to war-related events. All participants completed a range of standardized self-report questionnaires. Findings indicated that former evacuees were more likely to have insecure attachment styles and lower levels of present psychological well-being. Satisfaction with, but not quantity of, current social support was found to mediate the relationship between attachment style and present psychological well-being. Conclusions are limited due to the method of measurement of attachment style, non-randomized design and method of recruitment. Nevertheless, findings offer an indication that the experience of evacuation is associated with long-term psychological vulnerability through its relationship with insecure attachment.

War, gender and culture: Mozambican women refugees

Analyses of the psychological sequelae of war-related violence for women tend to rely on the concepts developed in research on male combatants. Post-traumatic stress disorder or varying combinations of its symptoms are identified as the principal outcomes of war-related events for women. By and large, the dominant literature does not examine possible outcomes which could be specified by gender. This paper refers to the war in Mozambique during the 1970s and 1980s as a typical illustration of how women are an integral part of the battlefield. It draws on research on African women and uses testimony of Mozambican women refugees who settled in South Africa to explore how gender is linked to psycho-social outcomes of massive social conflict. The paper argues that a richer understanding of the psycho-social outcomes of war and the needs of survivors is promoted by investigating gender in specific historical situations and how this frames the responses people have to experiences of violence and social destruction.

Variations in the impact of long-term wartime stressors on mortality among the middle-aged and older population in Beirut, Lebanon, 1983--1993.

The authors investigated the relation between exposure to wartime events and cardiovascular disease (CVD) and all-cause mortality in Lebanon, which recently underwent a 16-year civil war. The study population comprised a representative cohort (n = 1,786) of middle-aged and older men and women who, in 1983, participated in a community-based health interview survey. In 1993, the authors traced 87.7 % of the original cohort (n = 1,567) and assessed their vital status, exposure to war-related events, and, in case they had died, cause of death. War experiences were aggregated into different clusters according to type of exposure, realm affected (human vs. property losses), and person central to the event. Women, but not men, had a significantly elevated CVD mortality risk for exposures to human traumas that occurred to them (rate ratio = 3.37, 95% confidence interval: 1.41, 8.05) or their families (rate ratio = 1.45, 95% confidence interval: 1.20, 1.74). Exposure to property losses and work-related problems carried a greater mortality risk for men, particularly those with lower levels of education, than for women. Subjects displaced during the war had a significantly higher risk for CVD and total mortality. These results suggest that, during prolonged wars, different elements of exposures have a long-term impact on mortality, with effects varying by gender and socioeconomic resources.

Impact of the 1991 Gulf War on the coastal environment and ecosystems: Current status and future prospects

This paper reviews the current status of the Gulf's coastal environment five years after the 1991 war. It also examines some key issues that emerged during the post-war period and considers future environmental prospects for the region. Despite extensive damage to coastal salt marshes and mangroves, the post-war period has generally been characterised by recovery of intertidal biota (diversity, community structure), wintering wader populations (abundance, community structure), and seabird populations (abundance, reproductive success). The subtidal was less exposed to oiling than the intertidal, and war-related events may have had only minor influence on changes observed on coral reefs. Biological patterns observed are in accordance with the generally declining petroleum hydrocarbon levels recorded in shallow coastal sediments. However, levels actually increased between 1992 and 1993 in parts of the NW Gulf, probably from increased tanker traffic. Similarly, sediments at 5 of 11 sites studied in 1993 exhibited high toxicity and contained high petroleum levels. Overall, these effects match predictions made in 1993 and are in accordance with the Gulf's perturbed nature and short-term dynamics. Providing a single index as a ‘snapshot’ of the health of the environmental system, which also captures the dynamics of the different ecosystems impacted, remains elusive. Additional difficulties include incomplete time-series, the possibility of misjudgements about species abundance and mortality from incomplete sampling, and the likelihood of synergism and antagonism between war-related effects, background impacts, and natural stresses. Economic costs of war damage are even more problematic to assess than ecological impacts. Post-war studies suggest that certain coastal activities unrelated to the conflict (e.g., recreation and fishing), can be equally or more damaging environmentally than war-related effects. Use of the coastal zone as a repository for solid wastes and development of infrastructures is also increasing and becoming a major issue. However, war-related concerns have often been viewed outside the wider context of coastal zone management, resulting in an incomplete picture.

Double Trauma: A Group Therapy Approach for Vietnam Veterans Suffering from War and Childhood Trauma

ABSTRACTA model of a 9-month exploratory psychotherapy group for male Vietnam War veterans diagnosed with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) who also experienced childhood physical and sexual abuse is presented. Recent literature delineating an association between combat PTSD and earlier childhood abuse is briefly reviewed and forms the basis for a new treatment, strategy. A trauma group psychotherapy approach that investigates the connections between war and childhood traumas and their effects on later adult coping and interpersonal relationships is fundamentally different than existing trauma group treatment paradigms that focus primarily on war-related events. A description of the group formation, philosophy, course, and outcome is provided and enriched by clinical material.

How the Gulf War Affected Aged Holocaust Survivors

Hantman, Solomon, and Prager present the only quantitative empirical research in this volume. Around the world we watched Israelis drill for poison gas, and then endure the unpredictable explosions of SCUD attacks. This must have elicited horrible memories of the Second World War for many aged. The authors herein report that aged Holocaust survivors differed in their reactions to the Gulf War. Those who had experienced prior war-related events were more vulnerable to stress.

Children as Victims of War: Current Knowledge and Future Research Needs

Recent international events have drawn attention to the effects of war-related events and processes on children and their families. This review of the literature concerning the existence, frequency, and type of social, emotional, and behavioral problems in children exposed to war indicates significant methodological problems in previous research. Available evidence suggests that massive exposure to wartime trauma seems likely to overwhelm most children's defenses; however, children's cognitive immaturity, plasticity, and innate adaptive capacities may mitigate war's effects in low-to-moderately intense wartime settings, resulting in self-protective, adaptive, cognitive styles that allow effective functioning after acclimatization. Promising recent research has shifted from the focus on psychopathology to social awareness, values, and attitudes. More research will be needed to determine how age, developmental, family, and community factors may mediate the strength and nature of wartime effects, and to determine which interventions are most effective in a variety of settings and cultural contexts.

Life experiences, response styles and mental health among mothers and children in Beirut, Lebanon

A sample of 152 women living in Beirut, Lebanon was studied to determine the relationship between life experiences, mothers' depression, and children's health and behavior. Measures of the perceived negative impact of both war and nonwar related events, measures of available social support, sociodemographic variables, coping or response strategies and displacement were used to predict mothers' depressive symptomatology and their children's health. The level of perceived negative impact of war-related events was found to be strongly associated with higher levels of depressive symptomatology among mothers. More surprising was the relative importance of experiences unrelated to the war in predicting higher levels of depressive symptoms. Among the most noteworthy of the findings was the association between the use of an emotional response style and the measure of psychological dysfunction. Finally, the level of a mother's depressive symptomatology was found to be the best predictor of her child's reported morbidity, with higher levels of symptoms associated with higher levels of morbidity.

Emergency centers in Israel: A small community organizes to cope with war related crises*

This paper focuses on community-wide emergencies caused by war-related events in Lebanon at the beginning of June 1982. Mobilization for the "Peace for Galilee" campaign began on Friday, 4th June. Overnight, families were disrupted, husbands and sons were in danger, and within 24 hours there were notifications of casualities and deaths. Families in crisis became a widespread phenomenon. In Herzlia, as in many other communities, a new service - the Emergency Center - emerged under the auspices of the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs and the Municipality. The authors describe this process of getting organized, the populations served, how the Center was staffed, the role of citizen volunteers, and the types of interventions used to help vulnerable families as well as soldiers home on leave. Stress is placed on the unique type of short-term co-operation achieved between social workers of the local Department of Social Welfare, the staff of the Department of Community Services (especially its Volunteer Bureau), the local liason officer of the Israel Defence Force, the municipal government, and public-spirited volunteers. Mention is made of conditions which made possible the activation of such a service within hours, of the Center's capacity to serve all segments of the population, and of how it was deactivated within a few weeks when the emergency ended. On the basis of lessons learned from this experience, the paper ends with a number of specific recommendations. The authors hope that such innovative forms of crisis-intervention will become part of the helping technology widely available at the community level in future years.

Long-term effects of traumatic war-related events on sleep

Eleven patients who had combat neuroses resulting from the 1973 Yom Kippur War and complained of sleep disturbances were studied in a sleep laboratory. Sleep-onset insomniacs, dream-interruption insomniacs, and pseudoinsomniacs were differentiated on the basis of electrophysiologic recordings. Compared with normal controls who actively participated in the Yom Kippur War, patients showed significantly longer sleep latencies, lower sleep efficiency indices, lower percentage of REM sleep, and longer REM latencies.

Anti-War Demonstrations and American Public Opinion on the War in Vietnam

Evidence was brought to bear on the question of the crediting of anti-Vietnam war demonstrations with the American public's disenchantment with the war in Vietnam. Demonstrations had no measurable effect on the decline in favourable public opinion as measured by Vietnam-related poll and survey questions; such changes in opinions largely were explicable by other factors (presidential policy initiatives and war-related events in the short-run; casualties and duration of the war in the long-run). The American public's general dislike for Vietnam war protesters also makes it unlikely that demonstrations could have served as 'mediating links' between the war and the American public; it appears that the news media served this purpose. The major implication of this account is that anti-war demonstrations in the U.S.A. are not effective instruments for changing American pbulic opinion. On several occasions, the late President Ho Chi Minh of North Vietnam noted occurrences of anti-Vietnam war protest in the United States and expressed his gratitude to the Americans who demonstrated in opposition to their government's policies in Vietnam.l These remarks probably would be best interpreted as appreciation for the sentiments that the protesters expressed; President Ho does not appear ever to have stated that he thought anti-Vietnam war protests themselves would have any effect on what the American government decided to do in Vietnam. One would suppose, though, that anti-Vietnam demonstrators sought to change American policy in Vietnam in terms of one basic objective: the withdrawal of American troops from Vietnam.2 How protest would yield this result does not appear to have been explicitly spelled out. Presumably, however, anti-Vietnam war protest in large part was intended as 'educational', to convert the American people to the antiwar perspective.3 According to some accounts, these efforts were successful. One observer commented that some returned Vietnam veterans 'were expressing their disgust [with the Vietnam war] long before antiwar protests had begun to make a serious dent on public opinion'.4 Another asserted that 'the war [in Vietnam] would still be

Crisis Waves: The Growth and Decline of War-Related Behavioral Events

Crisis Waves: The Growth and Decline of War-Related Behavioral Events