War Journalism Research Articles

Covering Gaza

Abstract When journalists witness the same horrors inflicted on their people by a powerful military, anxieties around the concepts of objectivity, impartiality, balance and neutrality in journalism become paramount. Amid military campaigns described as war crimes, journalistic values, including truthfulness, accuracy and accountability, gain even greater significance. Journalists are vital in bearing witness to these atrocities, uncovering the truth and holding perpetrators accountable, even in the most perilous conditions. In the context of the war on Gaza, as well as the conflicts in southern Lebanon and Ukraine, traditional objectivity, I suggest here, is unattainable. The only semblance of truth emerges within a positioned or contextual framework. This perspective is evident in the coverage by Gazan journalists during the Israeli military atrocities, reflecting the broader challenges of war journalism. This article argues that journalists faced with the stark realities of war, they inevitably adopt a positioned objectivity, recognizing the impossibility of detachment or neutrality when confronted with the horrors of conflict. Many Western journalists and audiences have long viewed objectivity and impartiality as absolute ideals unaffected by context. However, this mindset should be challenged, as context should indeed shape our understanding of these concepts.

U.S. War Correspondents Tweeting Ukraine: A Case Study in Transnational Meta-Journalistic Discourse

ABSTRACT This paper investigates how war correspondents working for U.S.-based news organizations Tweeted about the early stages of the 2022 war in Ukraine, focusing particularly on instances when these war reporters contributed to a distinctly transnational version of what Matt Carlson has termed “metajournalistic discourse” (2016). Defining this concept as the “public expressions evaluating news texts, the practices that produce them, or the conditions of their reception” (Carlson [2016]. “Metajournalistic Discourse and the Meanings of Journalism: Definitional Control, Boundary Work, and Legitimation.” Communication Theory 26 (4): 349–368 , 353), we argue that from February to May of 2022, U.S. war correspondents constructed a discourse that situated their own labor within the boundaries of what counts as the most acceptable form of war journalism, representing their reportage as the most independent and transparent form of war reporting. Conversely, they situated the work of Russian and Ukrainian journalists outside this boundary. The paper ultimately argues that journalism scholars should think more transnationally about the discourses that discuss journalistic labor.

Media Coverage of Mediation: Before and During the Russian–Ukrainian War

RESEARCH OBJECTIVE: This study’s objective is to examine how mediation is presented in the news media stories before and during the outbreak of war. THE RESEARCH PROBLEM AND METHODS: The research problem is an attempt to answer the question if in stories, whereas their headlines introduce the word “mediation” or “mediator,” respond to the concepts of mediation, peace, or war journalism. This documentary research analyzes 100 news published in Spanish, where we examine how the conflict between Russia and Ukraine is presented to the readers. In addition, three experts in culture of peace (from Spain, Mexico, and Colombia) were interviewed regarding the media portrayals of war and mediation. THE PROCESS OF ARGUMENTATION: This investigation begins with a recapitulation of the conflict between Russia and Ukraine; before and after the outbreak of the war, different personalities offered intervention as a possible mediation. Despite the intentions to mediate, the war broke out, and the international community continued to search for a mediator. Thus, the influence of the media using specific words like “mediation” deserves to be explored. RESEARCH RESULTS: The study’s findings reveal that 85% of the analyzed media used a vocabulary whose style responds to war journalism and contradicts the idea of mediation in the bodies of the news stories. As a result, four categories emerge: self-proposed mediators, requested/expected mediators, mediating countries, and mediation experts. CONCLUSIONS, INNOVATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS: This research demonstrates that the sense of mediation in media does not provide clarity but rather confusion. Even if the intention of mediation is covered, mostly, it is accompanied by a binary perspective of the conflict, which is the opposite of what mediation implies. The findings indicate a need to create spaces for training on culture and peace-building in the newsrooms to improve journalistic practices about armed conflicts.

Investigating Conflict-Sensitive Journalism: Aljazeera News Report on the 2017 Rohingya Crisis in Myanmar

The Rohingya Crisis in 2017 has called for widespread condemnation of Myanmar. However, reports on this event have only escalated tensions. This paper explores the practice of peace/war journalism by an international media, Aljazeera, in reporting such a crisis. To do so, this research utilizes Lynch’s peace journalism framework as a standard of conflict-sensitive media. This paper argues that evidence of peace journalism does exist, but other factors imply that war journalism is still strong. Such practice of war journalism has (1) disregarded the crisis' global ramifications; (2) put a narrow context that ignores Myanmar's democratic struggle; (3) portrays conflicting parties' religious relationships as victim-perpetrators; (4) dehumanized Buddhists, monks, and the Myanmar people in general; (5) lacked accounts from grassroots peacemakers; and (6) created an excessive emphasis on elite-level negotiation, particularly in light of pressure from world leaders.

Shattered lives, unbroken stories: journalists’ perspectives from the frontlines of the Israel–Gaza war

Abstract Purpose This study sheds light on the unprecedented complexities of the Israel–Gaza war, offering insights into the challenges that journalists face in this conflict zone. It employs the Hierarchy of Influences Model to analyze the factors influencing conflict reporting within the dynamic landscape of contemporary war journalism. Design/methodology/approach Rooted in the Hierarchy of Influences Model, the research is informed by interviews with 18 Palestinian journalists in Gaza. It examines the multifaceted influences on war coverage, encompassing individual, media routines, organizational, and societal factors, offering detailed insights from journalists’ firsthand experiences. Findings The research unveils semi-hierarchical influences within the model, illustrating the intertwined nature of micro and macro-level factors impacting war reporting. It sheds light on the complexities of journalistic practices amidst conflicts, underscoring the importance of safety, ethics, and the intricate relationship between personal experiences and professional duties as well as the evolving role of technology, acting both as a facilitator and a limitation in journalistic endeavors. Practical implications The study holds substantial implications for war journalism practices, providing valuable perspectives for educators, policymakers, stakeholders, and media practitioners engaged in conflict reporting. It highlights the importance of understanding and addressing the challenges faced by journalists in conflict regions to enhance the quality and accuracy of war reporting. Social implications By uncovering the challenges and influences affecting war reporting, this research contributes to the broader discourse on media ethics, safety protocols, and the societal impact of conflict coverage. It emphasizes the need for comprehensive support systems and ethical guidelines to safeguard journalists operating in volatile regions. Originality/value Bridging academic and practical perspectives on conflict reporting, this study offers unique insights into reporting complexities in the Israel–Gaza War. It emphasizes the critical role of journalistic practices in navigating hazards and limitations, amid evolving challenges for the media in portraying conflicts accurately.

War and Peacekeeping: Personal Reflections on Conflict and Lasting Peace by Martin Bell

War and Peacekeeping: Personal Reflections on Conflict and Lasting Peace" by Martin Bell offers a profound examination of war journalism and peacekeeping efforts. Drawing from experiences in conflict zones like Bosnia and Somalia, Bell highlights the human toll of war and critiques the challenges faced by peacekeepers and journalists. Nonetheless, "War and Peacekeeping" remains a significant contribution to the discourse on conflict resolution, emphasizing the imperative of acknowledging human suffering amid global strife.

Analysis of coverage of the 11 March 2004 Madrid train bombings in Spain’s El País and El Diario Vasco through war and peace journalism frames

This study examines the way in which two major Spanish newspapers, El País and El Diario Vasco, framed the 11 March 2004 (11-M) Madrid train bombings through peace journalism or war journalism, based on Peace Studies theorist Johan Galtung’s classification. An analysis of the news articles in the immediate aftermath of the bombings finds both frames present. The incumbent Spanish government initially tried to use the news media as a vehicle to present a premature interpretation that the Basque separatist group ETA perpetrated the attacks, even trying to pass a United Nations resolution. However, some journalistic coverage of the events in the week after the 11-M attacks portrayed the Spanish people’s sentiments regarding Spain’s support of the US in the Iraq war, Spaniards’ engagement with their democracy, including massive street protests, and parallels between the Iraqi people’s suffering and the Spanish train bombing victims. Other journalistic coverage focused on the perspectives of high-level Spanish government officials, emphasized the importance of prevailing in ‘the war on terror’, and provided an ‘us–them’ orientation.

Takeover of Afghanistan by Taliban: Analysis of Newspapers’ Frames and Foreign Office Statements

This paper reflects the existing scholarly debate on media-foreign policy relationship and its application, in varying circumstances, on Afghanistan under the guise of Galtung’s War and Peace Journalism model. The Researcher quantitatively analyzed, The New York Times and Moscow Times from 15th August 2020 to 15th August 2022 (one year before and one year after Kabul’s takeover by Taliban) in the backdrop of foreign policy statements. The New York Times remained stuck to War Journalism with respect to Afghan Taliban during both time periods (pre and post Kabul takeover periods). However, Foreign office statements of US shifted from War Journalism (during pre-Kabul takeover period) to Peace Journalism (during after takeover period). Contrary to this, coverage of Moscow Times changed from War Journalism (during pre-takeover period) to Peace Journalism (during post takeover period) amid peace dominated Russian Foreign office statements during both time periods.

Equity, diversity, and inclusion in the construction of journalistic and training agendas for peace in Colombia

Since their early stages, developing narratives has been characteristic of human beings, allowing them to create community and generate cohesion—one that has endured for thousands of years is “peace”. However, in some territories, excessive ambition, fear imposed by force, and power over laws have proliferated. In the case of Colombia, war as an industry empowers different sides that are either endorsed or rendered invisible in the narratives of traditional mass media. Media content has always favored war journalism and neglected two vital approaches: peace journalism (PP) and university journalism. This study’s relevance lies in its use of big data, automated lexicometry, and statistical discourse analysis to understand how university journalism built a peace journalism agenda, taking the narrative of the Peace Agreement in Colombia as a framework of observation, with a clear result in the importance of equity, diversity, and equality in a peaceful transition scenario in Colombia. The study reveals that university journalism has a diverse narrative approach, focusing on presenting the social problems and inequities, the lack of political capacities within communities, the need for a transitional approach toward peace, and the pursuit of truth. The study used mixed research techniques where students narrated their individual perspectives that informed a collective view by integrating the voices of those who suffer the conflict daily. Simultaneously, they showed how academia, from its training function, develops exercises that may compromise the integrity of the axiological values of communication and journalism. The main implication of our study suggests the need to strengthen pedagogical processes of peace in the curriculum and training that enable the next generation of journalists in the country to potentially shift their discourse toward peace journalism and divergent solutions, as opposed to those proposed by traditional media. In conclusion, including youth opinions that were supported by experts on the process introduced an element of community empowerment and recognition of victims within the context and social structure of the Colombian conflict.

War and Peace Journalism in Mass Shootings Coverage - Case Study of a School Shooting in the U.S. Uvalde

Research objective: Analysis of the problem of using the theory of war and peace journalism in reporting mass shootings in the American media on the example of a school shooting in Uvalde. 
 Problem and methods: The article answers the question whether theories about war and peace journalism can be helpful in the analysis of media coverage of mass shootings. The text analyzes how the leading media broadcasters in the U.S. (CNN and Fox News) use war- and peace-oriented mechanisms. The article uses research methods standard for social sciences and humanities, including content analysis with elements of framing analysis, comparative analysis and the case study. 
 Process of argumentation: The starting point for the research was the theories on war and peace journalism by Johan Galtung. The reason for undertaking the research was also the record number of mass shootings in the U.S. in 2021 and the significant importance of the Uvalde shooting in the American public debate on gun control in 2022. The article focuses on the first week of coverage of the shooting. 
 Results: American media use war journalism more often. Coverage is influenced by ideological profile and political affiliation. Political issues and the reconstruction of events come to the fore. Contexts such as victims, solutions, roots of the problem or fate of the perpetrator are discussed less frequently. The shooting in Uvalde became an instrument in the political conflict in which the media took part. 
 Conclusions, innovations, and recommendations: War journalism mechanisms favor media polarization in bipartisan conflict conditions and help show sensational events in a 24-hour cycle. In turn, the mechanisms of peace journalism support reporting on the perpetrator, victims and potential solutions. The article intends to increase awareness of various ways of publicizing extraordinary events and political conflicts and serve for more profound research in the future.

Using the Russian-Ukrainian War as an Example, Critically Analyze the Impact of War-Type News and How It Is Produced, and Critically Reflect on the Results

This essay examines the effects of war journalism and its methods of production using the Russian-Ukrainian conflict as an illustration. The article looks at how war news is created and how the general public consumes it. The essay also critically evaluates how the Russian-Ukrainian War coverage performed. The analysis emphasises the significance of fair and impartial reporting in times of crisis and the necessity for journalists to uphold their neutrality and integrity. The article’s conclusion emphasises news organisations’ duty to inform the public with accurate and trustworthy information during times of crisis.

Peace or War? Framing Analysis of Taiwan Media’s Military News Reports on the Conflict in the Taiwan Strait

<p>本研究以2020 年8 月中國人民解放軍對臺軍事演習為案例，借徑國際衝突常見的戰爭／和平新聞學及愛國主義框架等理論，從四家主流媒體的消息來源、關鍵詞、描繪形象等面向，探究報導內容分歧，及對臺海衝突議題的態度與立場傾向。量化研究發現，臺灣四家媒體對國際衝突中母國與敵國的好惡表達，及認定臺、美能否阻止中共武力犯臺，報導立場與使用框架皆有顯著差異，而消息來源使用和報導數量則相反。《中國時報》使用和平新聞學，《自由時報》、《蘋果日報》傾向戰爭新聞學、愛國主義等框架、表達對中共政府的負面情緒，認定中共無法成功犯臺；《聯合報》在各種框架呈現上則較持平。本文也以質性分析闡釋、討論，並在末尾提出探討限制及對未來研究的建議。</p> <p> </p><p>This study examined the news coverage of the August 2020 Chinese People’s Liberation Army (PLA) military exercise against Taiwan in order to investigate the content discrepancies, attitudes, and political leanings of the four mainstream media outlets in Taiwan regarding cross-strait conflict issues. Using the theories of war/peace journalism framework and patriotism framework, the study analyzed and compared the choices of news sources, the uses of keywords, and the portrayals of events among different media. Quantitative findings reveal that there were significant differences in the coverage of four different media in Taiwan in terms of the expressions of favorability towards the home country or the adversary in international conflicts, the positions adopted in reporting on whether Taiwan and the United States can deter the Chinese Communist Party’s (CCP) military aggression against Taiwan, and the uses of reporting frameworks. No significant differences were found in terms of choices of news sources and the number of news items. The findings indicate that the China Times tended to use peace journalism frameworks. The Liberty Times and the Apple Daily leaned towards war journalism frameworks and patriotism framework, tended to express negative sentiments towards the Chinese government, and believed that China cannot successfully invade Taiwan by force. The United Daily News, in comparison, maintained a relatively neutral stance. Qualitative analysis and discussion were included to interpret the findings at the end of the study, as well as the limitations of the study and suggestions for future study.</p> <p> </p>

Shavian Perspectives on the Cusp of Change and War (Pygmalion, Heartbreak House, and St. Joan)

Shavian Perspectives on the Cusp of Change and War (Pygmalion, Heartbreak House, <i>and</i> St. Joan)

REPORTING OF INDO-PAK CONFLICTS IN ELITE PRESS: A PEACE JOURNALISM APPROACH

In this study, the researchers have contently analyzed the prevalence of war and peace journalism in the elite press of India, Pakistan and UK on the reporting on three war and three peace events in the past twenty years between India and Pakistan. The data was obtained through lexis-nexus database. The total number of stories in the final sample was 3889. The researchers found that selected press mainly reported the six events through war journalism approach. Interestingly, the three warring events got more war journalism stories as compared to the peace events. Unlike the existing literature, the researchers found the peace events were also reported in war journalism approach. The economic CBMs on the other hand got equal distribution of war and peace journalism. The researcher found that those peace events that occur in highly politicized and elitist environments are also reported in war journalism approach. The study concludes that the nature of war and peace journalism approach is linked with the nature of an event. If an event involves a direct confrontation between rival groups, the national media is bound to produce more war journalism. If the level of intensity of a conflict decreases, opportunity for peace journalism increases.

Peace and Conflict Depiction in Newspapers Blog Contents: A Comparative Analysis of Pak-India Relations since 2019-2020

As Pak-Indian relations were on high alert throughout the 2019–2020 study period due to the Pulwama assault and other terrorist activity in Occupied Kashmir, this research was conducted to examine blogs for peace and conflict journalism. A content analysis procedure was utilized for data collection.Through the use of a coding sheet, data was gathered between December 2019 and 2020 to look into the potential influence of blogs on the war and peace reporting between Pakistan and India. According to the study's findings, bloggers primarily pushed war journalism rather than peace journalism. Both publications framed discussions of Pakistan-Indian ties in terms of trade, security, propaganda, border conditions, and issues related to nuclear war and Kashmir. This Study is important for media organizations, editors and reporters to develop a strategy for peace journalism instead of war and violence journalism. Blogs are a plying substantial role in opinion building and changing.

Framing the Israel-Palestine conflict 2021: Investigation of CNN’s coverage from a peace journalism perspective

This study uses textual analysis to examine CNN’s World News coverage of the 12-day conflict between Israel and Palestine in May 2021. We bring into conversation the influential factors that shape U.S. media coverage of other countries, as presented by Dorman and Farhang, and Galtung’s concept of war journalism in our analysis. Our findings show that CNN primarily took a war journalism approach to frame the conflict. However, calls for consideration of Palestinian human-rights from members of U.S. Congress led to coverage that aligned with a peace journalism framework. This finding illuminates the role of counter-discourse by elite social members in influencing the framing of conflict coverage in mainstream media. The study adds to our understanding of U.S. media coverage of ongoing conflict between Israel and Palestine and the implications of war journalism versus peace journalism frames with regards to public discourse and understanding.

Why intervention in Afghan media failed to provide support for peace talks

This article presents and discusses data from two research methods on journalism in Afghanistan before the Taliban takeover of power in August 2021. News reports from the time of the intra-Afghan peace talks in September 2020 were analyzed using the Peace Journalism model. These were found to be predominantly War Journalism, leaving audiences cognitively primed for violent conflict responses and likely to overlook or fail to value peace initiatives. Interviews with 16 Afghan journalists revealed this pattern to be at odds with their aspirations and role perceptions. They wanted to report more in the style of Peace Journalism: revealing backgrounds and contexts; highlighting successes and achievements; giving a voice to all rival parties, and covering peace initiatives from whatever level. The constraints they identified, as impeding their preferred reporting approaches, were categorized using Reese and Shoemaker's Hierarchy of Influences model. Some were attributed to the commercial competitive market structure of Afghan media under the internationally supported government, after an initial infusion of development aid was reduced. In any such intervention in future, it is argued, news can play a positive role in building a constituency for peace—but only if aid interventions ensure that media are not left to operate on a purely commercial basis.

Finding peace journalism: An analysis of Pakistani media discourse on Afghan refugees and their forced repatriation from Pakistan

This study investigates media coverage of Afghan refugees by English-language media in Pakistan and explores how coverage is shaped by a shift in the political stance of the Pakistani state and establishment towards Afghanistan. The author examines how Afghan refugees, their forced repatriation from Pakistan, and the subsequent conflict between Pakistan and Afghanistan were framed in both long-form and short-form media coverage over three years. Using Galtung’s Peace and War Journalism Model to inform the Critical Discourse Analysis, this study finds that conflict-escalatory frames dominated media coverage, and media stance changed over time to reflect state policy on the forced repatriation of over three million Afghan refugees in Pakistan. Findings reveal that the coverage in all four publications was highly politicized and inflammatory, the voice of Afghan refugees was significantly missing from coverage, while the Pakistani government and military elite were predominantly used as news sources. Based on the findings, the author argues that pressures from the Pakistani state and military establishment are key reasons why media coverage of Afghan refugees frequently contained negative frames of terrorism and ethnonationalism. Sporadic employment of limited peace-oriented framing was, however, observed in some of the coverage.

THE ROLE OF TURKİSH MEDIA IN FORMING PUBLIC OPINION ABOUT THE SECOND KARABAKH WAR IN TURKEY (TÜRKİYE)

It is mentioned in the article that the coverage of the conflict, which has entered a new stage with the beginning of the Second Karabakh War, in the Turkish media and the great influence of the media in shaping public opinion. The Nagorno-Karabakh problem is also examined down from the historical aspect in the article, various studies and theories related to the effects of the media in shaping public opinion are analyzed, at the same time, the fact that the factor of realization of modern wars in the field of information exchange is kept in focus. In addition, the forms of the topic kept on the agenda in different media platforms of Turkey until the beginning and end of the Second Karabakh War are evaluated with different criteria, the importance of the media in the direction of receiving the support of the Turkish people is emphasized. Although the application of war journalism is difficult, it is one of the important branches of journalism in terms of delivering the right information. The wars that have occurred are often between two countries that accuse each other the parties are trying to use the power of the media to justify themselves and get support from the international community. At that time, the duty of the journalist in the region is to report the events in an impartial, accurate and correct manner by following the principles of journalism, and to play an active role in the formation of public opinion. It is no coincidence that it happened during the Second World War that the media was discovered to have the potential to lead the masses and use it as a a means of propaganda. When newspapers with different ideologies and information policies were analyzed in the Turkish public, it was observed that the media organizations, which can be characterized as opposition, government, or independent, continuously followed the processes from the beginning to the end of the war and shared the events in the region with the Turkish public. Media subjects published news about the war mainly on the front page and in the main headline, and this factor formed the conclusion that the event was perceived by the public as an important nuance from the point of view of the theory of agenda setting.

Reframing South African TV news as peace journalism

This article presents an indicative sample from the results of an experiment that gatheredaudience responses to television news that was coded as “war journalism” and “peacejournalism” respectively, in South Africa, during April 2012. From the peace journalism model,evaluative criteria were derived under a set of five headings for content analysis of two televisionnews programmes and four newspapers. Distinctions under the headings were particularisedfor individual stories by critical discourse analysis to disclose potential sources of influencetransmitted into audience frames. The test material was then coded to fall within the upper andlower peace journalism quartiles of the ‘idiom and range’ of journalism, as currently practised,demonstrated by the content analysis. Transcripts of discussions by focus groups who saw thematerial, as well as written notes made whilst viewing by a larger sample of participants, werethemed according to Entman’s model of framing (1993), where causal interpretation is linked totreatment recommendation. From these interim findings, peace journalism proved to be ideationalin the sense that peace journalism viewers were more likely to perceive structural and/or systemicexplanations for problems, and more likely to see opportunities for therapeutic and/or cooperativeremedies to be applied through exertions of political agency from different levels.