Walls Of Church Research Articles

Materials and Techniques of the Mural Paintings in the Church-Ossuary of the Rila Monastery, Bulgaria

This presented research examined the wall paintings in the Church-Ossuary Presentation of the Blessed Virgin, part of the most important Rila Monastery complex in Bulgaria, painted by the painters from Mount Athos in 1795. The painting materials used to create the unique murals were studied for the first time by optical microscopy (OM), attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (ATR–FTIR), scanning electron microscopy energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM–EDS), and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The vibrational and elemental analysis showed that the color palette of the paintings is composed of pigments traditional for Orthodox church wall paintings such as natural pigments, including yellow ochre, red ochre, green earth, and calcite, as well as other historical pigments of synthetic origin, including smalt, red lead, cinnabar, and verdigris. The analysis of the binders by the ATR–FTIR spectroscopy and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) analysis implied the use of the post-Byzantine egg tempera technique. Only the blue backgrounds in the murals were painted using a smalt-based paint mixed with a carbohydrate binder. Based on the current analysis and comparison with the successive paintings in the other churches of the Rila Monastery, it could be concluded that the technology of the painting process followed by the Athonite artists during the work in the Church-Ossuary became a point of reference for many Bulgarian icon-painters later.

Imajinasi Poskolonial dan Interdependensi Pembebasan dalam Upaya Pendidikan Agama Kristen yang Interreligius-Interkultural di Indonesia

Abstract Tolerance should be a two-way communication between different groups in society, not just from the minority to the majority. Interreligious and intercultural religious education can contribute significantly to the deep tolerance of Indonesian society. This paper identifies and analyzes the potential collaboration between postcolonial imagination and liberating interdependence in interreligious-intercultural Christian religious education, using qualitative research based on a literature study with postcolonial analysis supported by interviews with five Christian religious leaders in Indonesia. Postcolonial imagination and liberating interdependence result in interreligious and intercultural education that promotes dialogue, liberation, tolerance, and social justice in Indonesia’s pluralistic context. This educational approach will widen the learning space so that it is not limited to the classroom or church walls only. A safe learning space will be created for various local narratives in their encounters with diverse religious stories and their connection to economic structure, politics, race, and gender. This learning space also allows both women and men to share their life stories in connection to God the Liberator. Keywords: Education, Interreligious, Intercultural, Postcolonial Imagination, Interdependence.

Economia e justiça social à luz da encíclica Fratelli Tutti

This work analyzes how the Encyclical Fratelli Tutti presents the principles of Economy and Social Justice. To this end, a methodological path is followed to present the conditions and debates that inspired its publication, given the highly predatory global economic scenario, which generates inequalities and destruction of the planet. It is clear that the Encyclical is not the inauguration of Pope Francis’ economic thought, but rather, it is connected to a series of previous documents, which already provoked movements and concrete actions. The first step towards overcoming inequalities is the conscious reading of reality, in which it is possible to establish a dialogue between Pope Francis’ text and other authors who have already outlined this panorama. Finally, a reading of each chapter of the Encyclical is established, observing the key themes, which are Francis’s fundamental principles for a new economy and Social Justice, an invitation that is made beyond the walls of the Catholic Church.

Christianity and modern Japanese society: An historical overview

AbstractThis review article provides an overview of studies on Christianity in modern Japan, with a specific focus on works that address its social and political impact from a historical perspective. It first seeks to orient readers in the historical context within which the religion was transmitted to Japan, before delving into the notable works in the field. The scholarship indicates an evolution from an initial focus on missionary evangelism and narrowly defined church history to a more expansive outlook that encompasses the rich and complex lives of Japanese Christian leaders and their broader societal impact beyond church walls. Topics covered include Protestant missions, indigenous movements, women's education, social reform, and biographical studies. As a reflection of the author's area of interest, special attention will be paid to the case of the Christian social reformer Kagawa Toyohiko. The review will be limited to English‐language scholarship, although brief references will be made to Japanese‐language scholarship where appropriate.

About Alexey Khomyakov’s Views on Church Painting

The article is devoted to the views on church painting of one of the Slavophile leaders A.S. Khomyakov. In 1845, Alexander Ivanov, an artist working in Rome, influenced by the “Slavophile” atmosphere of meetings with F.V. Chizhov, N.M. Yazykov and N.V. Gogol, attempted to use an icon as a model for the image of the Resurrection of Christ for the Moscow Cathedral of Christ the Saviour (for the first time in the history of the Russian academic school). It is doubtful that Khomyakov could have unreservedly welcomed this endeavor by Ivanov. Although he believed that for Russia’s return to nationality it would be sufficient only to revive the old in consciousness and life, he did not at all understand this return as a revival of the authentic forms of Old Russian art or as a stylization of these forms. Khomyakov’s negative attitude to stylizations is evidenced by his sharp criticism of the eclecticism of Bavarian art. In Russia, he believed, the link with tradition had long been severed and therefore Old Russian art could not serve as a basis for a modern art school. Not in Ivanov’s traditional icon-oriented sketch of the Resurrection of Christ, but in his painting The Appearance of the Messiah, Khomyakov recognized, even before he saw it with his own eyes, evidence of the beginning of the revival of truly Russian life and Russian thought. In his opinion, the artist sought in the painting to eliminate personal artistic manner, to become a kind of transparent medium through which the holy image would be imprinted on the canvas. The German Nazarene artists tried to capture the Christian phenomenon in the artistic contemplation of the spirit, but they could only teach it, they themselves were incapable of it. Ivanov, a graduate of the Imperial Academy of Arts, who had perfectly mastered the craft of an artist, was at the same time, according to Khomyakov, a pupil of icon painters, who created a great work of church wall painting. The history of the Russian art school of the second half of the 19th — early 20th century fully confirmed the validity of this assessment of the painting The Apparition of the Messiah. It laid the foundation for the God-seeking direction of Russian painting, on which Russian art blossomed in the work of I.N. Kramskoi, V.M. Vasnetsov, M.V. Nesterov, N.N. Ge, as well as atheists — V.D. Polenov and V.V. Vereshchagin. Although not all the works of this trend were honored to be accepted into the bosom of the Orthodox Church, most of them allow us to be deservedly proud of the Russian art school.

Isolation and identification of fungal biodeteriogens from the wall of a cultural heritage church and potential applicability of antifungal proteins in protection

Fungi are able to permanently damage cultural heritage buildings and stone monuments. Protection against these biodeteriogen fungi is challenging because it may require the use of drastic techniques to remove fungal colonies and chemicals, which can cause further damage, especially on mural paintings. Natural biocides are less damaging, greener, and safer and mainly include essential oils and plant-derived substances. Studies on the applicability of purified antifungal proteins in the conservation of cultural heritage buildings are lacking. In this study, we isolated mold mycoflora from the biodeteriorated inner walls of the Calvinist church of Kézdialbis (Kézdialbis, Romania) and investigated the in vitro antifungal efficacy of Neosartorya (Aspergillus) fischeri antifungal proteins, NFAP and NFAP2 against them. Antifungal susceptibility testing revealed that these proteins inhibited the growth of the most commonly isolated indoor biodeteriogen fungi from the site (Aspergillus creber, Aureobasidium pullulans, Cladosporium sp., Penicillium chrysogenum, and Parengyodontium album) and not common ones (Mucor hiemalis, Sarocladium kiliense) with different spectra and efficacies. A phytopathogen and an entomopathogen species (Pseudopithomyces chartarum and Beauveria pseudobassiana, respectively) were also isolated and described first as fungal biodeteriogens of the inner walls. Among them, P. chartarum was susceptible to NFAP2. Next, we tested the applicability of NFAP and NFAP2 in protecting cultural heritage buildings in a wall model experiment against A. creber. Topical application of both antifungal proteins significantly decreased the area infected by fungi. Scanning electron microscopy of the wall models showed that A. creber had reduced growth and conidiation in the presence of NFAP and NFAP2. This inhibitory activity was maintained for a long time. Strong UV irradiation decreased the protective effect of both proteins in the wall model. Taking into account these results, the high stability of NFAP and NFAP2 in harsh environments, and their bulk recombinant producibility, we suggest that both can be used in the protection and posttreatment of painted walls of cultural heritage buildings to clean up mural painting or to inhibit mold recolonization after mechanical, physical, or chemical decontamination.

Dynamic-Based Limit Analysis for Seismic Assessment of Free-Standing Walls of San Giovanni Church in Castelseprio UNESCO World Heritage Site

Free-standing archaeological walls are significantly exposed to horizontal actions (e.g., earthquakes) as they lack connections provided by floors or roofs. In such cases, the dynamic response governs the activation of local mechanisms of collapse, determining the shape of the macroblocks and their position. Engineering models of archaeological walls are developed according to the results of extensive visual inspections and on-site testing, including modal identification for calibration purposes. A modal response spectrum analysis on the calibrated model identifies the zones where the tensile stress is exceeded, which are more likely to detach as rigid macroblocks and subsequently overturn due to the expected ground spectra. The macroblocks are then assessed according to limit analysis. The case studies are the north and the apse walls of the church of San Giovanni Evangelista in Castelseprio (Varese, Lombardy), a 5th century Longobard fortified settlement, a part of UNESCO World Heritage. The construction quality of the apse was poorer than the north wall, but the masonry of both is very compact thanks to the good mortar. The macroblocks are identified mostly in the upper crests of the walls, and their acceleration of activation is two to six times larger than the demand (considering the dynamic amplification that the structure applies to the ground motion); therefore, no particular intervention is needed. The proposed method will require additional calibration, e.g., through nonlinear dynamic analyses, and a more precise treatment of uncertainties in masonry mechanical properties to determine the shape of the macroblocks.

The behaviour of orthodox historic churches built with lime mortar in Romania consolidated with reinforced concrete after the 1977 earthquake

In Romania, historic monuments have suffered significant damage after earthquakes. In the southern part of Romania, in the Oltenia region between the years 1838 and 1977, five strong earthquakes with magnitude exceeding 7 ML occurred, causing severe and repeated damage to Orthodox churches constructed with brick masonry and lime mortar. After the 1940 earthquake, consolidation was carried out with modern materials for that period, such as metal ties and reinforced concrete. Due to the collapse of the central tower made of brick masonry during the 1977 earthquake in the Church of the Holy Archangels Michael and Gabriel in Craiova, it was reconstructed using reinforced concrete columns and beams. Furthermore, the consolidation was carried out using reinforced concrete. Due to the different mechanical properties of historic brick masonry with lime mortar and reinforced concrete, cracks appeared over time on the church walls in the contact zones between these materials. Under the coordination of Bishop Irineu of Oltenia, consolidation works were initiated for 17 historic monument churches in the Gorj region after the earthquakes in 2023, and this Church in Craiova was included in the list. The article presents the modes and areas of damage resulting from the introduction of consolidations with irreversible materials, together with the results of in situ tests conducted by the EXPIN laboratory in Padua, Italy, to determine the mechanical properties of the load-bearing elements comprising the Church and structural analysis of the Church using ETABS software to predict past, present, and future behaviour.

The elephant in the room (at Notre-Dame de Gourdon, Burgundy)

John Osborne begins this paper with a question: what was an elephant doing on the wall of a Romanesque church dedicated to the Virgin Mary’s Assumption? He answers by considering first the placement of the elephant in the other art of the building and the relationship of the lower part of the wall-painting (called the dado) to the higher images; then by considering what medieval Europeans would have known about elephants from natural history books, bestiaries, and imported silks; some would also have seen live animals, the rare gifts to monarchs from Eastern rulers, and would have extensive knowledge of the ivory trade.

Count S. D. Sheremetev and the establishment of the Committee of Guardianship of Russian Icon Painting

By the end of the nineteenth century, it had become obvious that there was a need to prepare and publish a new Icon-painting Script (Podlinnik) - a manual that holds the canonical rules in accordance with which icons and church walls should be painted. A trusted courtier of the Dowager Empress, Count S.D. Sheremetev arranged a considerable discussion of this issue in the Society of Lovers of Ancient Literature, of which he was a chairperson. In the course of this discussion, it became clear that the situation necessitated not only the publication of a new Podlinnik, but also the establishment of icon-painting schools and, in general, the systematization of a wide range of issues related to the development of this trade. Sheremetev approached the Emperor with the request, and Nicholas II established a special structure under his command - the Committee of Care on Russian Icon Painting, which was charged with reforming the icon painting trade. Director General of the Most Holy Synod, K.P. Pobedonostsev was not initiated into this project: the creation and initial stages of the structure's activities took place outside his jurisdiction. This circumstance led to his conflict with Sheremetev.

The mirror-writing epigraphic cryptography of Tatev monastery and similar parallels

Tatev monastery is one of the famous historical, religious-cultural centers of medieval Armenia, whose epigraphic inscriptions have great importance for the study of the history of South Caucasus. Numerous inscriptions are preserved on the walls of churches and memorial monuments of the monastery and many of them remain unpublished. A mirror-writing epigraphic cryptography is preserved on the exterior southern wall of St. Paul-Peter Cathedral of the monastery, whose decipherment has been the main occasion of this publication. The inscription reveals the names of bishops Anton, Stepanos and Father Kirakos – most likely visitor-donors who came to the Tatev monastery as pilgrims and made donations, for which their names were awarded to be mentioned on the walls of the church as the “Book of Life”. As a result of this discovery, the number of Armenian mirror-writing cryptographs (which are known from various Armenian monuments: Kurtan, Tanahat, Sevanavank, Litchk, Haghpat, Old Shinuhayr etc.) has been increased.

Archaeological explorations at ‘En Qobi in the Jerusalem Highlands and the identification of Qube/Qubi

The article presents the results of archaeological excavations and surveys undertaken at and near the spring of ‘En Qobi. ‘En Qobi is a spring in the upper reaches of Nahal Qobi, a tributary of Nahal Refai’m, West of Jerusalem. There is evidence of human activity near the spring from the Bronze Age to the present – a span of approximately 3,000 years. The article presents and discusses (a) the spring and its water system; (b) partial excavations and the preservation of the interior of the medieval church located near the spring; (c) H. Tasit and a nearby refuge cave, both located west of the spring; (d) H. Qobi, situated east of the spring. Our team cleaned the water system, which consists of a long spring tunnel, a large underground reservoir, an open pool and other elements typical of systems used to tap spring water in the Judean Hills. This system was apparently built in the Early Roman period, was renovated again and again and remained in use until recent times. The medieval church has a rectangular nave, oriented east-west with well-preserved ashlar walls. The inner walls were covered with polychrome frescoes. Elbow columns topped with capitals, characteristic of Frankish (Crusader) architecture in the Jerusalem area, were found in situ on the northern and eastern walls. Our funds permitted only a partial excavation of some portions of the inner walls. Inadequate funding prevented a full excavation of the church walls and floors, so the construction phases of the structure were not fully clarified. H. Tasit is a relatively small site, apparently an agricultural estate from the Roman and Byzantine periods. Unfortunately, the site was looted extensively in the past. On the nearby slope we detected and explored a small karstic cave that was apparently used for refuge purposes in the first – second centuries CE. H. Qobi is a small, ruined village located on a prominent hilltop above the spring. Without extensive excavation it is difficult to ascertain its function and past. An underground olive press and some looted tombs on the slopes were explored. Pottery and finds from the Late Hellenistic, Early Roman, Byzantine, Medieval, Ottoman and British Mandate periods were collected. ‘En Qobi has been identified as Qobi, a location near Bethar mentioned in a story in the Babylonian Talmud (Sanhedrin 95a) and in additional Roman-period, late antique and medieval sources. The article describes the sites and discusses their historical-geographical significance and identification.

Earthquake response and damage patterns assessment of two historical masonry churches with bell tower

The earthquake response of two historical masonry churches is investigated through a finite element macro-modelling approach and non-linear dynamic analyses. The main aim of the study is to evaluate the church walls effects on the seismic performance and damage patterns of slender bell towers, which are analyzed also in the isolated configuration to perform a comprehensive comparison with the confined counterpart. The results of the numerical simulations point out that both the churches, which present different sizes, structural features and dynamic properties, are highly vulnerable to low-to-moderate seismic actions and the bell tower is one of the most critical elements, suffering widespread damage due to also the interactions effects with the neighboring church walls. The presence of shorter adjacent structural elements significantly modifies the main structural dynamic characteristics, seismic response and damage patterns of the bell tower. For both the confined towers, the first cracks originate in the connection regions with the adjacent church walls: on the other hand, for both the isolated towers, the first cracks originate mainly at the base. An advance of damage onset is also detected in the case of confined towers with respect to isolated towers. At the end of the numerical analyses, for both the case studies, the confined configurations show more remarkable damage patterns and larger values of energy density dissipated by tensile damage than the isolated ones, presenting relevant cracks concentrations mostly near the connection regions with the church walls and in the middle-upper part of the bell tower. The results of this study emphasize the paramount importance of taking into account the interactions effects with the surrounding church walls for a proper damage and failure mechanisms assessment of bell towers within the church context: simplified analyses performed on isolated configurations without considering such interaction effects may lead to significant underestimations of damage for the bell tower inside the church.

Eclecticism in church wall painting: the murals of the Annunciation church in the village of Knyazhevo near Bezhetsk

Eclecticism in church wall painting: the murals of the Annunciation church in the village of Knyazhevo near Bezhetsk

Not for the Poor. The Biblia Pauperum on Medieval and Renaissance Tiled Stoves in Poland

As Biblia pauperum, we define not only books with an abbreviated text of Sacred Scripture, which were dominated by illustrations, but also cycles of artistic representations, e.g. painted on the walls of churches or decorating window stained-glass windows. However, other iconographic sources, such as stove tiles, are much less known. As archaeological monuments, most often preserved in fragments, they have not yet been thoroughly analysed. The article discusses medieval and Renaissance tiles with figural scenes with biblical motifs. As the archaeological sites most often feature several tiles decorated with similar thematic motifs, they should be treated as evidence of a conscious decision to show the cycle of events described in the Bible on the stove.

Roman inscriptions and sculptural fragments from Moldovenești and Bădeni

The paper publishes a series of fragmentary Roman monuments embedded into the walls of churches in Moldovenești and Bădeni (Cluj County). A part of them, epigraphic pieces belong to fragmentary funerary monuments and bring new information on onomastic and prosopography. Other fragments of funerary monuments only preserve the figurative and decorative sculptural decoration. Only two monuments are votive: a relief with the figure of Silvanus and an uninscribed altar. To have a complete picture of the recycling habit of the Roman monuments during the Middle Ages, some decorated architectural fragments are also presented. All these monuments come from the ancient city of Potaissa (currently Turda, Cluj County).

Seasonality in Moisture Dynamics in the Walls of the rock-cut Churches in Lalibela, Ethiopia: Implications for Weathering

ABSTRACT Moisture plays a key role in rock decay in the built and natural environments. Rock-cut sites are particularly vulnerable to moisture-related weathering as they are carved into rock outcrops and do not have impermeable foundations or roofs to retard the flow of moisture. To characterise the moisture dynamics and its influence on weathering of rock-cut sites, we undertook a moisture monitoring campaign using a non-destructive Microwave Moisture Measurement System (MMMS) at two monolithic rock-cut churches in Lalibela, Ethiopia. The results showed that the walls were more saturated at depth than on the surface during the wet season. This suggests that low surface temperature and higher moisture content at depth will lead to constant-rate drying and accumulation of salts on the surface of the walls during the wet season. In the dry season, there was higher saturation near the surface than at depth (falling-rate drying). High rock surface temperature during the dry season contributes to subsurface drying and accumulation of salts below the surface. This seasonally shifting moisture dynamics will lead to a complex and dynamic damage profile. This study highlights the significant wetting facilitated by a lack of impermeable roofs and foundations at rock-cut structures during rainy periods.

Mercy Oduyoye’s model of ‘partnership between women and men’ in African Christian ministry

Masculinity and manhood ideologies remain a serious theological concern in the context of South Africa and the continent of Africa. The masculinity ideology perceives femaleness as a symbol to be lower than maleness and thereby uses this as a strategy to dominate and oppress women. While the oppression and domination of women is experienced in many parts of African society, such experiences also exist within the church walls. The androcentric culture creates an unbalanced theology which then brings the entire discourse of theologisation into question. As this article grapples with these issues, it employs Mercy Oduyoye’s African women theology, particularly the model of ‘partnership between women and men’ in ministry, to reflect and respond to the issues raised. It further argues that as long as African women are subjected to oppression and domination by ideologies that are adiaphora, Oduyoye’s liberative hermeneutics remain relevant and necessary for doing inclusive theology in Africa.Contribution: While the article grapples with African women theologies within a theological terrain, the implications of the outcome are multidisciplinary as they aim to respond to challenges of oppression, masculinity and manhood ideologies that women face in their daily life.

Review: Rubens in Repeat: The Logic of the Copy in Colonial Latin America, by Aaron M. Hyman; Clothing the New World Church: Liturgical Textiles of Spanish America, 1520–1820, by Maya Stanfield-Mazzi

Review: <i>Rubens in Repeat: The Logic of the Copy in Colonial Latin America</i>, by Aaron M. Hyman; <i>Clothing the New World Church: Liturgical Textiles of Spanish America, 1520–1820</i>, by Maya Stanfield-Mazzi

A székely írás emlékei: Corpus Monumentorum Alphabeto Siculico Exaratorum ed. by Elek Benkő; Klára Sándor and István Vásáry

Reviewed by: A székely írás emlékei: Corpus Monumentorum Alphabeto Siculico Exaratorum ed. by Elek Benkő; Klára Sándor and István Vásáry George Gömöri Benkő, Elek; Sándor, Klára and Vásáry, István (eds). A székely írás emlékei: Corpus Monumentorum Alphabeto Siculico Exaratorum. Bölcsészettudományi Kutatóközpont, Budapest, 2021. 836 pp. Illustrations. Bibliography. Indexes. Ft8,900.00. This large collection of documents is the result of many years of meticulous research. It contains all the available relics of the Székely (Szekler) script, a runic writing system originally used by Transylvanian Hungarians who live to this day in South-Eastern Transylvania, Romania. The Szekler script (in Hungarian rovásírás) was first mentioned in the thirteenth-century chronicle, Gesta Hungarorum, but information about it reached the West only thanks to Johannes Thúróczy's Chronica Hungarorum two hundred years later. Originally the letters were carved into wooden sticks and gates, and only later on walls of (mainly Protestant) churches, and were used for personal messages or for the commemoration of those who built the churches. Most of the inscriptions have been discovered in the past seventy years, in the course of the restoration of medieval churches. With the renewed interest in antiquities, especially in Oriental languages and non-Latin scripts, Western scholars 'discovered' Szekler runic writing in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, mainly thanks to Rudimenta, an oft-copied manuscript in Latin by Johannes Telegdi, but most scholarly writing on the subject was carried out in Hungary, with the first book gathering and classifying all the documents available at the time being published in 1915 by Gyula Sebestyén. The Corpus Monumentorum contains six chapters, each identified by a capital letter of the alphabet. 'A' covers all the historical information about the Szekler script; 'B' the relics known as of now, mostly carved into church walls in Szeklerland; 'C' introduces those relics extant in manuscripts from places as diverse as Bologna, Constantinople and Csíkszentmiklós (Nicolești in today's Romania). Chapter 'D', by far the longest in the book, lists all relics of the runic writing extant both in print and manuscripts from the so-called Nickolsburg (today Mikulov, Moravia) Alphabet to the nineteenth century. As for 'E', this contains three sub-chapters, amongst them Mátyás Bél (Matej Bel)'s informative essay (Leipzig, 1718) on runic script, both in the Latin original and in Hungarian translation. Finally, a brief Chapter 'F' deals with uncertain sources and forgeries. Many of the original texts about rovásírás were in Latin, intended not only for a Szekler but a Hungarian and foreign Humanist readership. Already in his preface to the Rudimenta János Baranyai Decsi, a Strasbourg-educated Transylvanian, proudly asserts that the existence of this runic script demonstrates both the ancient origins of the 'Scythian' Hungarians and, with [End Page 745] its thirty-four characters, the richness of their language, as well as its kinship with Hebrew, 'the language of God'. The latter claim intensified foreign interest in the Szekler runic script, mostly from Orientalists and scholars of the so-called 'sacred languages'. Amongst them a special place must be accorded to the Leiden professor Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn, whose Historia universalis (1652) played a seminal role in providing Western scholars with information about the existence of the Szekler script. It is partly through his work and partly through information provided by a Hungarian diplomat in Brandenburg, Jakab Harsányi Nagy, that a number of Oxford scholars began to show interest in this topic, an interest that culminated in the publication of a table of Szekler runic script in the first volume of George Hickes's Linguarum veterum septentrionalium… (1703–05). (Unfortunately facts about Harsányi Nagy's role — largely thanks to the research of the Oxford scholar William Poole — reached the editors only after the publication of this volume.) It is impossible to give a full account of the rich material assembled in this impressive volume, but let me mention some facts that will be new even to those who have followed recent research...