Wall Paintings Research Articles

Digital image-based method to identify historical pigments in wall paintings

In this paper, a new analytical approach based on smartphone digital-images analysis coupled to chemometrics is proposed to investigate the nature of different pigments of historical and cultural interest. To that end, wall painting replicas were prepared and painted with 9 different pigments covering three colors: yellow, blue, and green. The mockups were photographed with a smartphone, and the images calibrated using a reference color chart. Two approaches were tested: one based on commercial color charts, and other based on lab-made ad hoc charts. The former demonstrated to yield better results, and the calibrated CIELAB coordinates were used to build Support Vector Machines (SVM) as a classification method. The optimized SVMs were able to successfully classify each pigment based on corrected CIELAB color descriptors, with errors of prediction below 5 %. Overall, this paper proposes a fast and non-invasive analytical method based on image treatment and chemometrics to discriminate among historical pigments in wall painting replicas.

Living in the shadow of Vesuvius: Analysis of the wall paintings of Pollena Trocchia’s Roman buildings across historical eruptions

Through a multi-analytical approach the research focused on the evolution of wall painting technology used for two decorated buildings in Pollena Trocchia buried by volcanic deposits of Vesuvius. The study highlighted a different stratigraphy (with two or three layers) of mortar-based supports. Volcanic aggregate was added to lime binder for rinzaffo and arriccio, whereas calcite and marble dust first, then organogenic limestones were used for intonachino. Pictorial layers, applied using fresco and mezzo-fresco techniques, were obtained combining common (e.g., ochre) and expensive pigments (e.g., cinnabar, aragonite, Egyptian blue), showing diachronic changes in raw materials selection and the refinement of decoration.

Restoration of Monumental Painting in Ukraine in the 1950–1960s. Social Aspirations and Ideological Collisions

The purpose of the article is to consider the peculiarities of restoration of sites of monumental painting of Ukraine in the post-war years 1945-1960s in the context of the influence of social, economic, and ideological factors. The research methodology consists in the application of general scientific and special research methods, in particular, analysis, synthesis, induction and deduction, generalisation and abstraction, semitic, descriptive, which together made it possible to obtain well-founded conclusions. The scientific novelty consists in outlining the general directions and approaches in preserving the artistic heritage of the post-war period of the 1950s-1960s, identifying gains and losses. Conclusions. Against the background of the global scale of the destruction of cultural heritage monuments, which required the implementation of complex monument protection and restoration tasks, the foundations of scientific methodology in the field of restoration of wall paintings were formed. The increase in the pace and volume of the restoration of cultural and artistic monuments after the Second World War was affected by new challenges caused by the lack of a material, technical and methodological base, qualified human resources, and shortcomings in the organisation of work. At the same time, deep destructive manifestations caused by atheistic state policy with a pronounced totalitarian colour have become fatal for a number of Ukrainian historical and cultural monuments, introducing a contradictory character into the establishment of the restoration work in the country. Thanks to the active position of leading cultural figures and the founders of the new Ukrainian restoration school of monumental art – Luka Kalenichenko, Olha Plihusch, Yevhen Mamolat, the first post-war decades became decisive in the formation of the national restoration and monument protection industries. Keywords: monumental painting, restoration, restoration workshop, preservation of monuments.

A Unique Painting Ensemble Explored

The back room of 524 Herengracht in Amsterdam houses a painted ensemble of Arcadian landscapes, made in 1771 by the Amsterdam wall hanging painter Jurriaan Andriessen (1742-1819). Technical research has shown that a complex creative process underlies this ensemble, in which major changes were made at various times. It demonstrates the painter’s quest for a balanced composition. An essential element in the painted wall hangings of Andriessen, who is known to have arranged his compositions in such a way as to guide the viewer’s gaze and movement through the room. The research also showed various techniques Andriessen used in the production of his paintings. For instance, he used a special measuring system and squaring grids to transfer the compositions from small sketch to large format canvas (one square in the sketches corresponding to one square foot in the canvases). It also appears that the painter arranged his compositions in such a way that the canvases could be easily adjusted for size in the event that the opening in the panelling was a little larger or smaller than envisaged. It could also be shown that Andriessen painted some elements in the room itself. As was customary at the time, Andriessen allied the shadows in his wall hangings to the fall of the natural light in the room. Remarkably, the painter hereby adjusted the light-dark contrasts to the position of the paintings in the room. In the hangings next to the windows, for example, the contrasts are greatly increased, with which the painter anticipated the bright backlighting that affected one’s view of these paintings. This attests to its strong connection to the room. A connection that has been preserved thanks to the efforts that the Van den Santheuvel, Sobbe Foundation, and the Rijksmuseum took at the time to maintain the interior in situ.

THE INFLUENCE OF POLITICAL EVENTS AND IDEOLOGY ON THE FORMATION OF THE PICTURE CONCEPT OF DUNHUANG CAVES FRESCOS

The article is devoted to an analysis of the figurative concepts of the Dunhuang cave wall paintings. It was determined that, despite the fact that the Dunhuang wall painting is an example of Buddhist art, it represents a syncretism of Buddhism and local beliefs—Taoism and Confucianism—which manifested itself in the depiction of characters from Buddhism and Taoism in one plot. Dunhuang cave murals are not uniform in style and execution techniques. Its genesis testifies that in the early stages it was a literal borrowing of the ancient Indian traditions of Buddhist mural painting; instead, there was a gradual layering of local painting techniques from the Central Plains of China. This led to the diversification of cave wall paintings of later periods and eventually led to the formation of a specific stylistic direction of "Chinese secular Buddhism," in which realistic painting plays an important role—the portrait genre of benefactors and the landscape genre of "mountains and waters."

PROTOTYPE OF Ag@ZnO CORE SHELL FOR THE STERILIZATION OF MURAL PAINTINGS

Cultural heritage sites often experience the unfavorable alteration of biodeterioration of mural paintings and wall inscriptions. Controlling or preventing biodegradation that may occur has been achieved through the use of various treatment methods, such as physical, chemical, and environmental control procedures. Regrettably, these treatments are often highly toxic to the health of conservators and visitors. Moreover, it causes pigmentation, is expensive, has low long-term results, and has poor long-term effectiveness. The use of Ag@ZnO core shell prototype in the field of cultural heritage was the first time in this research. The application was made to a painted wall inscription that dates back to the Middle Kingdom of ancient Egypt. A one-step chemical method was used to synthesize Ag@ZnO and it was examined using XRD, TEM, BET surface area, and Raman. These tests proved that the silver's core shell covered the zinc oxide's core and confirmed its purity. The painting on the wall was analyzed by SEN-EDX, Raman, and XRD analysis, and it was determined that the stone was limestone, the pigments were (Carbon for black pigment, Hematite for a red pigment, and Egyptian blue for blue pigment). These pigments and animal glue were combined to create the binding medium. The painted wall inscription was treated with Ag@ZnO treatments using a spray technique with a 5% concentration. The spectrophotometer was used to confirm that the color change has been below 5. This treatment method is non-hazardous, can be utilized both in vivo and in vitro, and does not necessitate the required environmental atmosphere or UV index.

Immunofluorescence microscopy for the characterization of paint binder in wall paintings: A two-step procedure of using anti-ovalbumin and anti-casein antibodies on the same micro sample

The aim of the study was to use immunofluorescence microscopy to identify two types of protein binders in 10 polished cross sections of micro samples, which were obtained from real and mock-up wall paintings. A two-step antibody hybridisation procedure was employed, in which the same micro samples were hybridised with anti-ovalbumin and subsequently with anti-casein antibodies and between the hybridisation steps, the sample's cross section was slightly re-polished and cleaned in order to remove all primary and secondary antibody remnants, which remained attached from the first hybridisation step (anti-ovalbumin). This allowed us to reduce the costs and operational difficulties, which are normally encountered, when antibodies, targeting two different proteins, are simultaneously mixed together. To reduce unspecific fluorescence, to amplify the fluorescence of the proteinaceous binders and to construct 3D surface topography models, apart from widefield fluorescence, laser-scanning confocal microscopy was performed. In parallel, FTIR spectroscopy analysis, of finding proteinaceous materials in micro sample cross sections, was also conducted. Results show that our two-step hybridisation procedure allowed for an accurate localisation of both types of proteinaceous binders without any interference from the first hybridisation step. Three micro samples proved positive for ovalbumin and one for casein and none of these proved positive for both analysed binder types. For eight micro samples, FTIR spectroscopy results completely matched those of immunofluorescence microscopy. According to our knowledge, this was the first immunofluorescence microscopy attempt of targeting two different types of proteins on the same cultural heritage micro sample.

Η Αγιότητα στην υπηρεσία της πολιτικής. Οι προπαγανδιστικές συνδηλώσεις της παράστασης του "Βουλγαροκτόνου" Αγίου Δημητρίου

St. Demetrius, the patron saint of Thessaloniki through the ages, the myroblytos and miracle-worker, is the subject of an extremely rich iconography. In one scene the martyr is depicted on horseback, spearing or unhorsing Ioannitzes, a prominent Bulgarian king (1197-1207). The specific iconographical type was conceived during the 13th century in the frame of the byzantine counter-narrative against the second Bulgarian state’s founding ideology, in order to present the aforementioned ruler’s sudden death as one of Demetrius’ numerous miracles. The diffusion of this scene served multiple objectives of Michael VIII Palaiologos’ propaganda, given that St. Demetrius was considered as one of his personal patron saints, a policy which was followed and expanded by his son and successor, Andronicus II Palaiologos. This paper’s aims are to interpret the propaganda meaning of the representation of St. Demetrius as ‘Bulgar-Slayer’ and to offer suggestions upon its dating, based on sources, coins, lead seals and wall paintings.

PENERAPAN DATA MINING PENJUALAN BARANG TOKO BANGUNAN H.UBED MENGGUNAKAN METODE ALGORITMA APRIORI

Process Sales activities on material goods so that they continue and so the data generated is increasing over time. Larger data will not be useful and useful if left alone. The Apriori Algorithm is one of the methods of Data Mining, namely data collection to determine the highest frequency pattern with the highest data collection and to determine transaction data, calculating the total number of transactions. The use of old data is used to find the results of the sale of the most and the fewest goods. The result of this data mining process is to find items that are often sold simultaneously. One of the benefits of using this method is to facilitate the preparation of goods to be separated in certain places such as items that are often sold. The a priori algorithm method in data mining is very efficient and speeds up the process of combining patterns of sales results from building stores. The data used is data on the sale of goods that are often sold. The list of building materials that have the most stock sold is Cement, White Cement, Sand, Wall Paint, Wood Paint, Ceramics, Wood, Bricks, Nails, Concrete Iron, and Wire

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in residential indoor air during interior finish period: Sources, variations, and health risks

Building and furniture materials are significant sources of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and determine their long-time indoor levels. However, the variations of indoor VOCs and associated health risks of interior finishers during the construction stages are poorly understood. In this study, VOCs in the indoor microenvironments were measured at different interior finishing stages at two renovated residences using thermal desorption and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The mean concentrations of the Σ15 VOCs were 118.2 μg/m3 in Home A and 232.5 μg/m3 in Home B. The simultaneous outdoor levels were approximately three times lower than indoors. The VOC concentrations were obviously lower than previous measurements in newly renovated residences, reflecting reduced use of these VOCs in interior materials. Temporal variations in the VOC concentrations during the interior finish period were compound- or room-dependent at each residence The remarkable rise in the VOC concentrations was largely affected by furniture installation at both residences. The non-cancer risks of VOC exposure were lower for both interior finishers and occupants. However, the cumulative cancer risks for interior finishers (1.2 × 10−4) exceed the acceptable threshold limit. The occupational exposure at the wall painting stage was the highest, and formaldehyde is the most significant contributor to both cancer and noncancer risks. This study also highlights the importance of detecting novel VOCs that may be present in interior finish materials as indicated by the TVOC measurements.

Botticelli-style tempera portrait on tile: Imaging and specific on-site spectroscopic analysis and cleaning examination

In this work, a tempera painting of uncertain attribution from the Uffizi Galleries was studied. The painting, which portraits a man with apparently Botticellian features, was probably created by one of the most skilled forgers of the early 20th century, Umberto Giunti. He used a flat tile as a support, covered with preparatory layers emulating a wall painting. To shed light on the authorship of the painting, it was crucial to investigate its composing materials, as well as the execution technique and the state of conservation. To this end, non-invasive spectroscopic and imaging optical techniques were applied. Specifically, VIS-NIR multispectral reflectography was used to reveal the presence of possible preparatory drawings, pentimenti and overpaintings. Raman and Fibre Optics Reflectance Spectroscopies allowed identifying the pigments used by the artist. Finally, colour variations due to the cleaning procedure were documented in order to provide a support for an informed restoration process.

Pigments of the Campania region (Italy): a first overview for ancient wall paintings

A first overview on the ancient pigments used in Campania region was carried out from some study on ancient wall paintings located both in residential and funerary contexts. The technological skills in the individual use or mixing of pigments from the ancient painters is related to four archaeological contexts of Campania region, dated back from the 6th century BCE to the 1st century CE. The pigments were analysed by means of in–situ spectroscopic techniques and micro–destructive laboratory analyses. The multi–analytical approach revealed the use of pure (natural and synthetic) pigments and some admixtures, created by the ancient painters to obtain assorted colour shades. The same mixtures were found in different chronological contexts and made by a different manufacturer, suggesting an evident transmission of technological knowledge over time.

Reden – Zeigen – Lesen: Multimodale Formen der Ansprache in altägyptischen Bild-Text-Kompositionen

“Speaking – pointing – reading: multimodal forms of address in ancient Egyptian image-text-compositions” – Starting from a scene in Ti’s mastaba (1), this article discusses the manifold synergies of textual and pictorial elements in representing the act of addressing / speaking in two-dimensional ancient Egyptian image-text-compositions. Following some remarks on the “address / speaking gesture” as it appears in pictorial sources (2) as well as its possible origins in actual historical practices (3) its appearance(s) and function(s) in wall paintings and reliefs are presented. Besides the frequent spatial correlation of speakers and their speech via this gesture (4) these include in particular the visual highlighting of certain parts of longer texts by a figure’s arm or hand reaching into them in cases of so-called “text-image-interferences” (5). The article is concluded by further observations on the multimodal nature of the act of speaking in real life as well as in pictorial representations (6) and some comparative observations on the occurrence of “address / speaking gestures” and their communicative use(s) in sources from Ancient Greece and the European Middle Ages (7).

A Message From the Pluriverse: The Spiritually Fluid Gift of Philip Cote’s Walls of Welcome

Called Walls of Welcome, Philip Cote—an Anishinaabe-Algonquin artist and spiritual elder—created a large-scale panorama inside the interior walls of the Roncesvalles United Church’s sanctuary in late 2021. Located in the west end of Tkaronto/Toronto—and believed to be the first Indigenous art mural inside a church in Turtle Island/North America (if not globally)—the wall painting visually narrates the Ojibway creation story and alludes to “The Eighth Fire.” The latter stems from an Anishinaabe prophecy that we (human beings) can unite in our shared humanity. Walls of Welcome gives us all a message from the pluriverse and a spiritually fluid lens for seeing our foundational stories. My paper explores how this mural brings communities together through the power of art and builds a new world for trust-building and healing that epitomizes truth and reconciliation.

“A Woman Clothed with the Sun”: The Diagnostic Study and Testing of Enzyme-Based Green Products for the Restoration of an Early 17th Century Wall Painting in the Palazzo Gallo in Bagnaia (Italy)

A 17th century wall painting, representing the Virgin between two Saints, in a noble Italian renaissance palace, the Palazzo Gallo in Bagnaia (Viterbo, Italy), was restored in 2021 in the context of a wider restoration campaign involving the main room of the palace built by cardinal Sansoni Riario. Diagnostic analyses performed using traditional characterization techniques (optical microscopy on micro-stratigraphic sections, X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy) provided the identification of both the original painting and its restoration materials, while imaging investigations using the ultraviolet fluorescence photography, false color images and multispectral mapping provided by the hypercolorimetric multispectral imaging (HMI) technique enabled the evaluation of the state of conservation, the location of restoration interventions and supported the monitoring of the cleaning procedure. An altered protective Paraloid®-based coating dating from the early 2000s had to be removed due to the unpleasant glossy finishing it had given to the painted surface, making the scene barely readable. To pursue a restoration protocol based on environmental sustainability and green chemistry, enzyme-based gels marketed by the Nasier-Brenta© and CTS© companies were tested in different protocols for the cleaning of the mixture (known as beverone) covering the painting. Although some interesting results were observed, the enzymatic cleaning had limited effectiveness, and was more timing-consuming than was reasonable. Traditional chemical solvents such as Dowanol PM (methoxy propanol) and benzyl alcohol were necessary to complete the cleaning of the painting surface.

Architectural assessment of wall paintings using a multimodal and multi-resolution diagnostic approach: The test site of the Brancacci chapel in Firenze

Based on the analysis of the renaissance wall paintings by Masaccio, Masolino, and Filippino Lippi in the Brancacci chapel in Firenze, this paper discusses the use of complementary non-destructive techniques based on microwave and optical methods for the characterization of the structural integrity of the wall paintings and their support in masonry. The selected non-destructive techniques are the InfraRed Thermography (IRT), Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), Microwave Reflectometry (MWR), and Digital Holographic Speckle Pattern Interferometry (DHSPI). In particular, the paper analyses the in-situ applicability of these techniques for the identification of the sequence of past interventions during centuries (stratigraphy analysis) and decay phenomena and defects, such as out-of-plumb or swelling area/elements, detachments, cracks and voids inside the wall. The results are compared with data obtained by means of consolidated techniques and methods, such as the Photogrammetry (performed by Structure from Motion method) and knocking test. The last one is normally used by restorers and conservators to recognize the presence of detachments. The proposed diagnostic strategy provides a survey from large scale by means of imaging techniques, to small scale increasing the spatial resolution thanks to the scanning of the surface by means of spot techniques. Therefore, the macroscopic survey of wall paintings was carried out using photogrammetry, in order to also provide metric information, to quantify the sizing out-of-plumb and swelling of the masonry or to locate of cracks, and followed by IRT. This preliminary morphometric survey was, supplemented by GPR, MWR and DHSPI for improve the results of the investigation. By combining these three techniques it was possible to inspect the entire thickness of the masonry (60­70 cm) with resolutions ranging from a few millimetres up to several centimetres. The combination of microwave-based and optical-based methods proved to be a valuable addition to routine methods for the holistic masonry diagnosis. Standard practice based on visual inspection and knocking test can be significantly improved and objectified by the proposed full-field, multi-sensor, multi-resolution approach.

The Lost Monument of Ivan Yizhakevych’s Art. Murals of Metropolitan’s Chamber in Belgorod

The paper raises the issue of studying the history of the prominent monumental painting of the early 20th century— the mural at the metropolitan’s chambers in Belgorod by the famous Ukrainian artist Ivan Sidorovich Yizhakevich. All available written, visual and digital sources were reviewed ir order to study the history of the monument. An art analysis of the illustrative material was performed. The paper aimed to find and systematize all available materials on the issue, and in addition, after analyzing all the available material, to make a probable reconstruction of the monument’s appearance, components, and most importantly, to highlight the role of Ivan Yizhakevich in creating this mural. During the work, a considerable source base, historical information and a significant body of literature were reviews. The conclusions hypothesise the composition of the ensemble of murals at the Metropolitan’s Chambers, outline the history of its creation, the role and guiding principles of Ivan Yizhakevych during his work on this wall painting. By searching and systematizing the available information about the ensemble of paintings of the Metropolitan’s Chambers in Belgorod, the value and uniqueness of Ivan Yizhakevych’s work as a prominent master of monumental painting has been proven.

Processing the Raw

In 1883, a late-medieval wall painting of the Last Judgment was discovered under white-wash in the vault of Sædinge Church in Lolland, Denmark, and then quickly covered up again. The painting depicted, in part, a hell scene deemed too offensive to display. A documentary drawing executed upon the painting’s uncovering contains within it the conflicted reception that this scandalous image received within the aesthetic and devotional context of the nineteenth century. Through this case of an image’s uncovering, documentation, and concealment, this article examines various understandings of negativity: as damnation, as aesthetic insufficiency, as devotional decadence, and finally, as absence.

GENESIS OF THE VISUAL CONCEPT OF CAVES INTERIORS OF THE DUNHUANG TEMPLE COMPLEX (4TH – 14TH CENTURIES)

The cave temple complex of Dunhuang is a unique example of a large-scale synthesis of arts in the interiors of sanctuaries of the 4th – 114th centuries. The article systematizes the scientific source base, the materials of the graduate student's own field studies, and on their basis, the periodization of wall paintings and sculptures is analyzed and the peculiarities of the genesis of the figurative concept, methods of artistic expression, common plots, etc. are determined.
 The innovation of the presented research consists in summing up the evidence base for known theses. This is traced by various defining features, which are specific plots in different periods, compositional structure, polychromy, methods of detailing. Using the example of the wall painting with Buddha, the well-known chronology of the three stages of the development of the wall painting is visually argued and detailed:
 – 1st stage – period of development (Northern Liang Dynasty (401-439), Northern Wei Dynasty (439-534), Western Wei Dynasty (535-556), Northern Zhou Dynasty (557-581));
 – 2nd stage – the period from prosperity to decline (Sui dynasty (581-618), Tang dynasty (618-907), Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907-960), the Northern Song dynasty (960–1127);
 – 3rd stage – period of borrowings (Xi Xia dynasty (1038-1227), Yuan dynasty (1271-1368).
 A comparison of the stages of the development of frescoes and sculptures and the periods of the appearance, flourishing and decline of various genres of wall painting (religious Buddhist, portrait, landscape) showed that despite the fact that the political and economic situation, the cultural and artistic preferences and religious commitment of the rulers equally influenced the activation of the development or the decline of art, the stages of development of mural painting and sculpture do not always coincide. In the same way, the period of the appearance and spread of various subjects was analyzed and it was proved that the canonical Buddhist images also underwent significant changes, giving rise to new and new compositions (for example, the appearance in the Tang era of the composition "Buddha in Nirvana" with a giant figure of the Buddha, or the spread of sculptures of a multi-armed Guanyin in the Yuan era).

PHILOSOPHICAL AND RELIGIOUS TEACHINGS OF CHINA AS THE BASIS OF ART AND ARCHITECTURE

The social life of China, its culture and art were determined by the local religion of Taoism, and the main postulates were laid out in the treatise "Daodejing" ("The Book of Tao and De", 6th century AD). Accordingly, a person with the whole way of life became a participant in the cycle of phenomena in nature, and therefore felt that he was not the main creation of God, as it was in Christianity, but only one of the components of the universe.
 Unlike Christianity, the phenomenon of Buddhism consists in the absence of a "logos" – the deity at the heart of the religion, since initially the image of the Buddha was interpreted as the image of a person who has achieved enlightenment. In Buddhism, there was no thesis about the value of human existence, which was interpreted as one-moment and changeable.
 Now let's trace how the specific philosophical and religious teachings of China influenced art and architecture.
 This is clearly visible both in secular buildings and in the temples of the three religions. The phenomenon of the transformation of the borrowed religion of Buddhism on local soil can be illustrated by the example of the unique cave temple complex of Dunhuang, the creation of which lasted over a thousand years, from the 4th to the 14th century. On the example of the wall paintings of sanctuaries, it is possible to trace how the borrowed subjects and techniques were gradually diversified and improved under the influence of local painting techniques. Moreover, scenes of secular life, portraits of benefactors, as well as a pantheon of Taoist deities were gradually added to the purely Buddhist subjects (fetian – the Chinese version of the heavenly apsaras, lords of Fuxi and NЯwa, etc.).
 The principles of feng shui and established hierarchy were also maintained in secular architecture and landscape design. So, all the main facades were oriented to the south, and the screens acted as barriers for evil spirits (in the gardens, such a function was performed by "natural screens" – "green screens", when one natural picture covered the other and it was impossible to view the entire garden at the same time. Chinese garden became the personification of the harmony of the world, therefore each landscape picture was carefully thought out. It was believed that gazebos – small pavilions in the garden became a place where a person encountered the laws of perfect harmony of nature. 
 An analysis of the relationship between traditional Chinese architecture and art and traditional philosophical and religious teachings proves that architecture and art were subject to the principles of feng shui and local "religious syncretism".