Wage Employment Research Articles

Study on Industrial Relations

Abstract: All industrial civilizations share the fundamental trait of widespread wage employment. Workers/employees and employers/management are two separate categories of people who are looking for wage employment, respectively. Known variously as labour-management relations, labour relations, industrial relations, or employer-employee relations, these two groups' relationships are structured. With the exception of the first, these definitions indicate that the relations are at minimum inclusive on the part of the employees. In regards to all problems that concern its members, the labour union negotiates with employers and management. Consequently, the two groups' relationships are structured.

FEATURES OF FORMATION OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY INCOMES OF THE POPULATION: THEORETICAL ASPECT AND REALITIES IN UKRAINE

This article is devoted to the theoretical and analytical study of the peculiarities of the formation and distribution of incomes of the population. Based on the synthesis of existing scientific achievements, we have determined the order of formation of primary and secondary incomes by stages of GDP distribution. We provе that the first stage of distribution of the created GDP is formed by factor primary incomes (from labor activity, property and productive capital). Thereafter, the redistribution of income occurs through the use of the fiscal mechanism and the accumulation of funds in public financial funds, from which secondary incomes such as wages of public sector employees, military salaries, scholarships, social benefits, pensions, social insurance payments and other social transfers are paid. Based on the analysis, we find that the share of primary income in Ukraine prevails over secondary income (57% vs. 43% in 2020). It is substantiated that the formation and distribution of personal income in Ukraine is characterized by the following main patterns: the growth of primary income is significantly higher than secondary income (the exception was only in 2020); the share of primary income tends to increase, and the share of secondary income decreases. We state that wages and salaries account for more than 60% of primary income, while social benefits and current transfers account for almost 80% of secondary income. Important sources of secondary incomes in Ukraine are the consolidated state budget and the Pension Fund (in their total expenditures, almost half and more than two-thirds, respectively, are the basis for the formation of secondary incomes). The author’s calculations showed that in Ukraine, almost half of all secondary incomes of the population are redistributed through the consolidated state budget and the Pension Fund (with a corresponding distribution of 30% and 13-23% during 2014-2020). At the same time, the level of redistribution of total income through these public financial funds is significantly lower (24.8-29.3% during 2014-2020). We prove that not only primary incomes are a factor in the formation of secondary incomes, but also secondary incomes determine the growth of factor incomes through the so-called multiplier effect, which is manifested in the following pattern: formation of secondary incomes → formation / growth of consumer demand → GDP growth → growth of primary incomes in terms of those employed in the production of relevant goods and services. During 2014-2020, secondary income in Ukraine led to expanded GDP growth, as the multiplier of social expenditures in Ukraine ranged from UAH 1.19 to UAH 1.65. Finally, the paper calculates the increase in primary income due to the multiplier effect of secondary income (the corresponding increase ranged from UAH 318 billion in 2014 to UAH 922 billion in 2020).

Conceptual principles of automation of accounting for work and salaries of employees of agricultural enterprises

The subject of the study is the theoretical and practical aspects of automating labor and salary accounting in agricultural enterprises. The purpose of the article is to substantiate the conceptual foundations of automating the accounting of labor and wages of employees of agricultural enterprises, to identify differences in its directions and to evaluate competitive advantages and results for the needs and improvement of management. The methodological basis of the article was dialectical, historical, monographic, system-structural analysis and synthesis; economic comparisons; special methods of accounting. Results of the article. It was determined that the automation of accounting for labor and wages of employees of agricultural enterprises provides them with significant competitive advantages of development and management efficiency due to simplification, acceleration, objectivity and high quality of accounting; significant cost savings for its implementation; availability for management and owners. At the same time, three conceptual approaches to automation with corresponding software products, spheres and tools of their influence, and expected results are substantiated. This is the automation of the accounting of typical calculations and payments with integration into the general information system of the enterprise; automation of the accountant's workplace; combined with a combination of the first two. Their comparison is made and advantages and disadvantages, perspectives of use are shown. Field of application of results. The obtained results can be used in the work of accounting offices of enterprises, in the scientific and educational process of agrarian universities. Conclusions. In order to increase the efficiency of managing the development of agricultural enterprises on the basis of the automation of labor accounting and employee salaries, it is important to implement the latest software products for its support. In particular, we may be talking about a more improved version of the program "1C: Salary and Personnel Management 8.3". This version is very productive for both accounting specialists and PH-management of enterprises, because it provides: definition, assessment, diagnosis, forecasting and planning of personnel needs; management of attestation, training and financial motivation of employees; effective planning of employment of employees from an overview on the seasonality of agricultural work; personnel record keeping and personnel analysis; maintaining staffing in agricultural enterprises. Another large set of advantages concerns the automation of calculations provided by the named advanced version of the program. We are talking about the automation of employee salary calculations; taxes regulated by legislation, withholdings from wages and accruals to the wage fund; accruals and deductions according to any algorithms; display of accrued wages and taxes as part of enterprise expenses. It is also management of cash settlements with employees, including depositing; formation of settlement sheets of any kind; formation of payment information with the arrangement of information according to various criteria by dividing it by categories of employees, types of work, divisions and other features; calculation of sick leaves, vacations, premiums, bonuses and incentives.

Social-Demographic Factors and Wage Determination

Most workers in Nigeria, like other developing nations, find it difficult to sustain themselves and their family despite the adjustment and re-adjustment of the minimum wage. This study, therefore, examined the effect of social-demographic factors such as: Age, Sex, Level of Education and Placements in an organization on wage determination. The study was a descriptive research survey. The population was all the 86 staff of the Federal Ministry of Labour and Productivity, Ilorin. While the study employed both stratified and simple random sampling technique. 60 employees of the ministry served as the study sample size. 66% of the respondents were males, while 34% female. The formulated hypothesis was tested with multiple regression. The result revealed that age, sex, level of education, family size and cadre level of placement of worker jointly predicted employee wage determination. The variable jointly predicted 17% changes observed in the reported employee wage determination. The study concluded that social-demographic factor such as: age, sex, level of education and employee placements in the organization affect wage determination. The study recommends that for an effective policy formulation the policymaker should consider the principle of wage differential because it ensure adequate coverage and measurement of the necessary variables that ought to be included while determining the minimum wage.

Motivasi Kerja Pada Karyawan Kontrak di Indonesia: Literature Review

This paper examines the work motivation of contract employees and the topic is limited because it only occurs in Indonesia. Then, there are not many studies that discuss work motivation for contract employees. Therefore, this literature study aims to discuss further about several studies related to work motivation in contract employees. Literature search was carried out on the Google database and specifically on a collection of University journals in Jakarta from 2019 to the present, there are 3 research journal articles that have been identified using inclusive and exclusive criteria, based on reviews that have been carried out, including the contract work system carried out according to with an agreement that has been signed together, it will improve employee performance by paying attention to and properly implementing work agreements, provisions regarding the period of service and providing employee wages in accordance with the provisions. High work motivation will have a positive impact on improving the performance of Contract employees by increasing love for the work given, cooperation, responsibility and enthusiasm for work

Migration of skilled professionals across the border: Brain drain or brain gain?

The foundation of organizations and knowledge-based economies is widely considered to be human capital and knowledge workers. This review synthesizes prior research on skilled migration, brain gain, and brain drain, occurring because of the cross-border migration of skilled professionals. The review comprises 75 studies, synthesizes findings, and develops a conceptual framework for enablers of skilled migration across the border, resulting in brain drain and brain gain. We support previous theories on international migration, stating wage differentials, employment, better earning, and family life as reasons for migration, as well as we provide the basis of Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory and Herzberg's two-factor theory to explain the phenomenon of skilled migration. The conceptual model proposed elucidates the brain drain and brain gain outcomes, thereby surfacing a formative base for future research agenda.

Women Promotion in Formal Wage Employment and Improving GDP Per Capita in Africa

Over the past two decades, issues related to solid gender disparities have gained prominence in the labor market in developing countries. Previous studies have addressed the issue of women's discrimination in terms of the gender pay gap without addressing the real impact of women's promotion to formal employment on economic growth. This study examines the effect of women's advancement in formal jobs on GDP per capita.. To examine this relationship in sufficient depth, we used data from 40 African countries from 2000 to 2019 issued from the World Bank database, and we used Dumitrescu and Hurlin's (2012) Granger causality testing procedure and the GMM model. Results show a causal relationship between the labor force, investment, human development index, trade openness and the proportion of women in formal wage work, and the GDP per capita of African countries. Results of the GMM model show that investment, trade openness and the proportion of women in formal work have positive and significant effects on GDP per capita. Regarding policy implications, African countries should invest more, develop regional integration, and promote women's formal wage employment for sustainable and inclusive development.

Factors of Differences in the Highest Wages of Employees in the Slovak Republic (2020 vs. 2010)

The article offers the results of statistical analysis of data on the highest wages of employees in the Slovak Republic in 2020. Descriptive analysis of sample data is supplemented by generalizing the results to the population of all employees whose salary exceeds the 99th percentile of the sample, by selected methods of statistical inference, which are probability models of the highest wages and analysis of variance. The analysis focuses on assessing the significance of the impact of selected demographic and social factors on the highest salaries of employees in SR in 2020 and their differences. The investigated factors there are gender, level of education, region of residence, the label of occupation, and age category. The article also focuses on inequalities in the number of employees at different levels of the monitored factors. The obtained results of the analysis are compared with the results of similar analysis from 2010.

The role of the social and solidarity economy in the extension of health insurance in Senegal

In Africa, the social/solidarity-based economy sounds like a promise of overcoming the historical link between social security and wage employment. In Senegal, the legal anchoring of the process of extending health insurance in the logic of the social/solidarity-based economy has been overtaken by conflicts of perception of this form of economy. The normative and institutional commitment to the extension of health coverage has not produced the expected results. The public financing of health insurance is a source of budgetary tension which already shows the fragility of a system vulnerable to endogenous and exogenous shocks. The social anchoring of health insurance, in its extension project, is also supported by administrative decentralisation, which is struggling to find a link with the historical sources of socialisation. Voluntary work would produce a differentiated social dynamic by increasing inequalities. The future of health insurance, in conjunction with the preservation of the bond of solidarity, equality and equity, depends on the willingness to mobilise the contributory capacities of the liberal professions, independent workers in the formal and informal economy.

Does female off-farm employment affect fertility desire? Evidence from rural China

PurposeOff-farm employment is an important factor associated with fertility transition in many developing countries. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the impact of female off-farm employment on their fertility desire in rural China.Design/methodology/approachBased on the data from the China Labor-force Dynamics Survey, the authors adopt an instrumental variable approach to address the endogeneity issue. Desired number of children and desire for a second child are used to measure fertility desire.FindingsThe results show that off-farm employment participation significantly reduces women's desired number of children and the likelihood of their desire for a second child. Moreover, off-farm employment reduces women's fertility desire mainly through pathways including the weakening of son preference and a decrease in job autonomy, rather than the changes in leisure hours. Further evidence suggests that social health insurance plays an important role in moderating the adverse relationship between off-farm employment and the desire for a second child. The fertility-reducing effects are more pronounced among younger women, among those participating in off-farm wage employment and among families with only wives' participation in the off-farm labor market.Originality/valueThis paper contributes to the existing research by investigating the causal impact of off-farm employment on fertility desire in a rural developing context and the possible underlying mechanisms responsible for this relationship. This study provides important insights on this topic in developing countries and may have important implications for theory and practice.

Inclusiveness of Wage Employment and Determinants of Wage Incomes in Ethiopia

Unemployment is one of the critical problems of developing countries, including Ethiopia. Agriculture is not only the mainstay of the economy of Ethiopia, but it is also a major contributor of employment opportunities for its citizens. The government of Ethiopia promotes commercialization of the agricultural sector through large-scale farming investment by the private sector. The article examined inclusiveness of large-scale farming and factors that determine wage incomes earned by plantation workers in Ethiopia. Both primary and secondary data were generated from households, and large-scale farming companies. Data were subjected to a modified Mincer's earnings function to see which group of the society benefited from wage employment. Inclusiveness in plantation agriculture in the form of wage employment was very limited to the local indigenous population in Gambella and Benshangul Gumuz regional states due to lack of prior farming experiences of the workers. Men and those with technical trainings received better incomes from wage employment. Regional variation in wage rates was observed among Oromia, Gambela and Benshangul Gumuz regional states due to harsh working environment and low availability of workforce. Inclusion of the local people in wage employment should receive attention by owners and the government, which will otherwise affect smooth and sustainable operation of the farms. Further, it calls for an intervention to enhance the technical skills of workers and improve women’s participation and earnings in plantation agriculture. Keywords: Plantation agriculture; wage employment; large-scale farms; inclusiveness; Mincer earning regression; Ethiopia

Pemanfaatan Website untuk Selekta Galaktika Musik sebagai Sarana Meningkatkan Promosi Usaha di Masa Pandemi Covid-19

The COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia has had a major impact on the economic sector. Many business actors (Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises) are experiencing a decrease in turnover and income, as well as an increase in debt. Some of the business constraints faced by business actors today include marketing, debt payments, payment of employee wages, rental payments, and raw material costs. The biggest obstacle lies in the marketing or sales of products with a percentage of 48.60%. This condition is also felt by Selekta Galaktika Musik which is a business actor engaged in the sale of special musical instruments for guitars, which is located at Jl. Janti 37A Caturtunggal, Depok, Sleman, D.I. Yogyakarta. The guitar products marketed come from local craftsmen in the village area of ??Bregan, Baki, Sukoharjo, Central Java. The COVID-19 pandemic that has occurred to date and the entry of imported products through the marketplace platform has had a major impact on guitar marketing. Imported guitar products with low prices and good quality have been proven to attract people's enthusiasm, so that local guitar products such as those marketed by Selekta Galaktika Musik are difficult to compete. Marketing efforts using social media have also been carried out, but have no significant impact on guitar product sales. Therefore, other efforts are needed to support digital marketing that has been carried out, namely by utilizing e-commerce in the form of a website. It is hoped that this website will be able to support promotional activities and can educate the public to choose local guitar products.

Economic conditions and the number of children in foster care

In the late 2010s, foster care capacity was declining. In this study, we show that increasing the affordability of fostering a child could increase foster care capacity. We use administrative data from Adoption & Foster Care Statistics (AFCARS) to examine the association between state-level economic factors and the number of children in foster care from 1996 to 2016. Using a panel regression, we found that a 10 % increase in state foster care payments was associated with a 0.9 % increase in the number of children in foster care in that state. As an example, North Carolina increased its payment rates to foster parents in 2008. Using a triple-difference strategy, we found that this increase led to a 20 % increase in the number of children in foster care relative to children placed in other settings and relative to other states. Second, we examined the role of housing affordability: higher housing prices were associated with a lower number of children in foster care, consistent with the cost of space being a constraint for foster parents. Third, we examined the role of labor market opportunities: a higher minimum wage and higher female employment were associated with a greater number of children in foster care. This result is inconsistent with the idea that foster care is just a job, so that higher pay in other jobs and more time spent in employment would dissuade people from fostering a child. Instead, our results are consistent with foster parents acting out of altruism under financial constraints. Our results suggest that relaxing these financial constraints by, for example, increasing board rates enables people to act on their altruistic motives and foster a child.

The labor market integration of Syrian refugees in Turkey

Although Turkey hosts the largest population of refugees globally, we know little about their labor-market outcomes at the national level. This study uses the 2018 round of the Turkey Demographic and Health Survey, which includes a representative sample of Syrian refugees for the first time, to examine refugee labor-market integration. The findings show a much smaller native–refugee gap in men’s employment in Turkey (favoring natives) than that reported for most developed countries. Moreover, the employment rate for refugee men peaks quite early, one year after arrival, and remains at the same level. By contrast, the employment rate for refugee women is initially lower and does not change much over time. Once demographic and educational differences are accounted for, the native–refugee gap in men’s (women’s) paid employment falls to 4.7 (4.0) percentage points (pp). These small gaps conceal the fact that formal-employment rates are much lower among refugees. Even when covariate differences are accounted for, the formal-employment rate for refugee men is 58 pp lower than the rate for native men. In addition, the smallest native–refugee employment gaps are in manufacturing for men and agriculture for women. The gap is also much smaller in wage employment than in self-employment or unpaid family work. Finally, significant heterogeneity exists across refugee groups. The native–refugee employment gap is wider for older and more-educated groups. Once covariates are accounted for, the gap in men’s employment vanishes for refugees whose mother tongue is Turkish but persists for refugees whose mother tongue is Arabic or Kurdish.

Incomplete Catching Up: Income among Yi, Manchu and Han People in Rural China, 2002–2018

AbstractThis paper explores household income per capita for the rural Yi and Manchu ethnic minority groups and the Han majority using data from the China Household Income Project 2002, 2013 and 2018. The disparity between total per capita income for the Yi and Han populations narrowed, while the average per capita income for the Manchu population remained relatively similar to that of the Han population. Decomposing total income to its sources shows that the rapid increase in agricultural income among the Yi was a main reason why the disparity in income, compared to the two other ethnic groups, narrowed. Nevertheless, reliance on agricultural income among the Yi was reduced as wage employment and migration increased. The Manchu group and the Han group also experienced rapid increases in wages and self-employment income. The aggregated value of transfers from the public sector was similar for all three ethnic groups.

The Gendered Impact of Rural Road Improvement on Schooling Decisions and Youth Employment in Morocco

This paper examines the impact of a rural road improvement project on schooling decisions and youth employment in Morocco. Paved rural roads are expected to reduce travel time and costs, allowing additional school choices and increasing the motivation for youth to enter higher education. On the other hand, immediate earning opportunities created by new connections may encourage youth to seek paid employment. Thus, the impact of rural road improvement on schooling and youth employment warrants empirical investigation. We employ a difference-in-differences estimation using a household-level dataset collected under a quasi-experimental setting. First, we do not observe any positive effect on primary school completion for either sex, but we find a positive and significant effect on secondary school attainment or above for females. Moreover, the higher educational attainment of females is associated with a lower proportion of early marriage. Second, we do not observe any significant effects on self-employment for either sex, but we find a positive and significant effect on wage employment for males, which is pronounced among the better educated. Our findings reveal sharp gendered differences in the impact of the rural road improvement project, with increased motivation towards better education for females and paid work for males.

Factors contributing to and preventing mothers of children 1-6 aged from participating in the labour market in Kazakhstan

Mothers of young children in Kazakhstan experience challenges to do paid work as the result of flaws in the state policies, motherhood penalty in the labor market and cultural barriers in the family institution. Absence of parental leave for fathers, three years unpaid maternity leave and shortage of state-subsidized childcare services reinforce traditional breadwinner family institution where women are the main caregiver and increase gender inequality. The labor market factors preventing mothers from fulfilling their fullest potential are wage gender gap, discrimination, and employers’ reluctance to hire women of reproductive age, and a lack of flexible work options. Within the family sphere, women in Kazakhstan spend three times more time on unpaid domestic work compared to men and mothers of young children are likely to have higher workload. The research aims to explore the main barriers preventing mothers of children 1-6 aged from participating in the labor market in Kazakhstan. The research applied the qualitative research method and conducted three focus group discussions among 15 mothers of young children residing in cities Almaty in Southern Kazakhstan. The results demonstrate that women face cultural and family barriers to do paid work in cosmopolitan Almaty and experience challenges to enter and remain in the labor market as a result of underdeveloped state policies and motherhood penalty in the labor market. Mothers of children 1-6 aged in Kazakhstan need sufficient number of childcare services for children aged under 3 subsidized by the state, flexible work schemes at workplace and policy incentives for fathers to take paternity leave

Impact of the Management Scale on the Technical Efficiency of Forest Vegetation Carbon Sequestration: A Case Study of State-Owned Forestry Enterprises in Northeast China

Improving the technical efficiency of forest vegetation carbon sequestration is an effective way to accelerate the pace and reduce the cost of carbon neutrality in China. Therefore, it is particularly important to explore the technical efficiency, influencing factors, and optimization paths of forest vegetation carbon sequestration. This work uses a 21-year panel data set (2000–2020) of 87 state-owned forestry enterprises (SOFEs) in Northeast China and combines geographic information system (GIS) and remote sensing (RS) technology. First, stochastic frontier analysis (SFA) was used to quantitatively analyze the technical efficiency of forest vegetation carbon sequestration in different SOFEs during different periods. Then, the individual fixed-effects model was used to examine the factors influencing technical efficiency under the control of climate factors. Finally, the panel threshold model was used to determine the impact of different management scales on the technical efficiency of forest vegetation carbon sequestration. The main results were as follows: technological progress can effectively reduce forestry investment and improve the technical efficiency of forest vegetation carbon sequestration production. There was technological progress in forest vegetation carbon sequestration production during the study period, but the rate of technological progress showed a decreasing trend. Forest management scale, total output value, employee wages, precipitation, and sun duration had a significant positive impact, whereas wood production had a significant negative impact on the technical efficiency of carbon sequestration. The impact of different management scales on the technical efficiency of carbon sequestration is highly heterogeneous. The study established an analytical framework for researching the technical efficiency and optimization of forest vegetation carbon sequestration, providing a theoretical and practical basis for forest management.

What makes Chinese rural migrants self-employed: a qualitative perspective

This study scrutinizes the causes, configuration, and consequences of rural migrants’ motivations for becoming self-employed. It aims to solve two main problems in the current literature. The first is that previous studies primarily explain migrants’ self-employment through economic variables when other factors (e.g., autonomy, meaningfulness, and work environment) might be more important. Second, no study has been conducted to qualitatively understand migrants’ self-employment outcomes. By drawing on in-depth qualitative interviews with rural-to-urban migrant workers conducted in four regions of China, this article provides insights into the pecuniary and nonpecuniary motivations of rural migrants’ employment decisions. Notably, it finds that most rural migrant workers in wage employment sectors are not in a position to exercise free choice regarding their working arrangements. In contrast, the prospect of achieving a higher level of income, greater autonomy, and more flexibility and freedom is important and attractive aspects of self-employment, with apparent gender differences. Nevertheless, migrants’ self-employment often involves self-sacrifice and economic and social marginalization. Therefore, it is unlikely that migrants select self-employment as an effective means for status acquisition.

Cognizance of Tribal People Through MGNREGA with Reference to West Singhbhum District of Jharkhand

The Government of India has launched a new scheme for wage employment which is named as National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA). The law was passed on August 25, 2005, and it came to effect on 2nd of February 2006. It is not merely a scheme but as an Act passed by the parliament for the eradication of poverty in rural areas through generating employment opportunities. Mahatma Gandhi Nation Rural Employment Guarantee (MGNREGA) Act is the flagship programme in which every fiscal year, unskilled manual workers are provided 100 days of guaranteed wage employment. This programme was implemented by the Government of India with the prime objective of providing livelihood security in rural areas and creating of durable assets. The present study aims at focussing in West Singhbhum district of Jharkhand. The study focused on the awareness of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) and the work activities provided to the beneficiaries. The data has been analysed and it has been found that, there is a lack of knowledge regarding the fundamental principles of the scheme. Keywords: Employment, Tribal, Programme, Government of India, MGNREGA