Wadi El-Natrun Research Articles

The ‎Pump-Power Supplies Performance to Raise the Water from Wells in the Wadi El-Natrun Region

The ‎Pump-Power Supplies Performance to Raise the Water from Wells in the Wadi El-Natrun Region

Climate variability in northern Africa during the late Holocene: A multiproxy perspective from El-Beida Lake (Wadi El-Natrun, Egypt)

North Africa is a key region hosting ca. 230 million people that are dependent on climate to maintain their subsistence through agriculture. Because of the current global changes, understanding the mechanisms behind the climate variations that occurred in this region is extremely important. To contribute to a more accurate modelling projection, we reconstructed the paleoclimatic and paleoenvironmental variations from the Meghalayan (∼1,500 ka) to recent using palynological and geochemical data from a sediment core from El-Beida Lake (Wadi El-Natrun area, north Western Desert of Egypt). North Africa underwent significant shifts in climatic conditions forced by different drivers since the Roman Warm Period (RWP) until recent. Our sediment core record indicates that this region experienced a persistent dry and warm climate during the RWP until the first half of the Medieval Climate Anomaly (MCA). The positive North Atlantic Oscillation was the main driver for controlling the precipitation pattern and pushing the precipitation towards central and north Europe and favoring the dry climate in North Africa during the RWP. The dry and slightly cold conditions in the study area during the Dark Age Cold Period (DACP) can be ascribed to the coupling between the more southward position of the Azores Front and the weak Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation. Northern Africa showed variable climatic conditions during the Medieval Climate Anomaly (MCA) due to the complicated thermohaline circulation of the Mediterranean Sea. During this time, the Eastern Mediterranean experienced a cold or partially cold MCA that may be extended to the present study area. An abrupt change to humid and cold climatic conditions occurred in northern Africa during the Little Ice Age (LIA) due to large-scale processes like the ENSO and NAO. The SST warming of the North Tropical Atlantic (NTA), significantly influenced by ENSO, causes the position of the Atlantic ITCZ to be shifted northward affecting precipitation in Africa.

Effect of Magnetic Strength of the Water Salinity Treatment Devices on Salt Accumulation in the Root Zoon and Its Impact on Growth and Productivity of Olive Trees

This study was conducted during the two successive seasons 2022 and 2023 at Wadi El-Natron west Nile Delta (EL-Behera governorate) to evaluate three commercial magnetic devices “Water magnetizers” of different manufacturers (Nefertari Biomagnetic 6000 Gauss, Magnolith 8000 Gauss, Delta Water 14000 Gauss), and to figure out which is more effective to reduce the negative effect of irrigating olive trees with saline water. The study examined the effect on vegetative growth, leaf mineral contents, leaf chlorophyll content, leaf proline content, and relative water content of Manzanillo olive trees. The experiment confirmed that olive trees can be irrigated with water containing 3500 ppm without causing high salt stress. Data also showed a positive effect of magnetically treated water on all vegetative growth characters (growth rate, stem diameter, number of green leaves), an increase in all elements content in experimental plant leaves except sodium and chloride, an increase in leaf chlorophyll content, decreased leaf proline content and increase relative water content. In terms of determining whether commercial devices are more effective than others, the Magnolith has been demonstrated to achieve the best results when compared to other devices, in most cases the difference between using "Delta Water" or "Nefertari" was not big enough to be significant. "Nefertari" recorded almost the lowest values of the studied vegetative growth characters, leaf chlorophyll, and relative water content. This indicates that the strength of the magnets alone is not the only thing that affects how well the device works; furthermore, it depends also on how the magnetic fields are configured and the manufacturing expertise.

Chemical, biochemical, and bioactivity studies on some soda lakes, Wadi El-Natrun, Egypt

Wadi El-Natrun is one of the most observable geomorphological features in the North-Western Desert of Egypt; it contains several old saline and saline soda lakes. This study investigates physicochemical and biochemical characteristics and estimates the total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TVC), and bioactivities of sediment, cyanobacteria, and brine shrimp (Artemia salina) in soda lakes, i.e., El-Hamra Lake 1 (H1) and El-Hamra Lake 2 (H2). These soda lakes are unique extreme ecosystems characterized by high pH (> 9.3), high alkalinity, and salinity. Some extremophilic microorganisms are hosted in this ecosystem. The results revealed that the chemical water type of studied lakes is soda-saline lakes according to the calculated percentage sequence of major cations and anions. Sodium ranked first among major cations with an abundance ratio of e% 58, while chloride came first among anions with an abundance ratio of e% 71, and bicarbonate and carbonate occupied the last rank with an abundance of 6%. The biochemical investigations showed that TPC and TVC are present in concern contents of sediment, cyanobacteria, and brine shrimp (A. salina) which contribute 89% of antioxidant capacity and antimicrobial activities. Thus, this study helps better understand the chemical and biochemical adaptations in soda lake ecosystems and explores natural sources with potential applications in antioxidant-rich products and environmental conservation efforts.

Enhancing uncertainty of regional climate models for climate change projection at Western Nile Delta

ABSTRACT The objective of this research is to refine the precision of uncertainty estimates associated with Regional Climate Models (RCMs) for precipitation forecasts in the Western Nile Delta region of Egypt up to the year 2100. This refinement is predicated upon a comprehensive evaluation of the performance of selected models. The study employed two RCMs, specifically RCA4 and RACMO22, which integrated outputs from three distinct Global Circulation Models (GCMs): ICHEC-EC-EARTH, CCCma-CanESM2, and MPI-M-MPI-ESM-LR, each characterized by different resolutions. To assess the performance of these models, a suite of statistical metrics was utilized, including the Percentage of Bias, Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), and Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiency Coefficient. The evaluative process encompassed an analysis of precipitation patterns across three strategically selected locales within the study area: Alexandria, Borg-Al-Arab, and Wadi El-Natroun. The resultant performance indicators were within deemed acceptable limits, evidencing RMSE values up to 6.91, Percentage of Bias not exceeding 0.33, and Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiency Coefficients up to 0.78. The analysis elucidated that among the models scrutinized, the RCA4 model, when driven by output from the ICHEC-EC-EARTH-SMHI GCM, demonstrated superior performance, thereby underscoring its efficacy for detailed precipitation projection in the context of the Western Nile Delta.

Metabolic profiling, antimicrobial, anticancer, and in vitro and in silico immunomodulatory investigation of Aspergillus niger OR730979 isolated from the Western Desert, Egypt.

Ten fungal species were isolated from soil in the Western Desert and Wadi El-Natron in Egypt. All fungal isolates were morphologically recognized down to the species level. Methanol extracts of fungal mycelia and ethyl acetate extracts of culture filtrate from the isolated fungi were evaluated for antimicrobial activity against six pathogenic bacteria and one pathogenic yeast (Candida albicans ATCC20231). Only ethyl acetate extracts of Fusarium circinatum, Aspergillus niger, and Aspergillus terreus culture filtrates showed significant antimicrobial activity against the majority of the investigated pathogens. The culture filtrate extract of Aspergillus niger exhibited notable cytotoxicity towards the breast cancer (MCF-7) cell line, with the lowest detected IC50 recorded at 8 μg/μl. Whereas Fusarium circinatum and Aspergillus terreus had IC50s of 15.91 μg/μl and 18 μg/μl, respectively. A gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS) investigation of A. niger's potent extract revealed 23 compounds with different biological activities. Glycidyleoleate was found to be the main extract component. Aspergillus niger extract was chosen to study its possible cytotoxic mechanism. The extract was found to induce apoptosis and cell cycle arrest at the < 2n stage. Despite a significant increase in caspases 8 and 9, the production levels of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and interleukin 6 (IL-6) have shown a significant decrease. The high interaction of glycidyleoleate against the studied cytokines' binding receptors was demonstrated via docking studies. In conclusion, the available data revealed that the culture filtrate extract of A. niger possesses promising antimicrobial, cytotoxic, and immunomodulatory properties.

Production, characterization and biomedical potential of biosurfactants produced by haloalkaliphilic archaea from Wadi El-Natrun, Egypt

Extreme halophilic archaea that can live in high saline environments can offer potential applications in different biotechnological fields. This study delves into the fascinating field of halophilic archaea and their ability to produce biosurfactants. Some strains of haloarchaea were isolated from Wadi El-Natrun and were screened for biosurfactants production in a standard basal medium using emulsification index assay. Two strains were chosen as the potential strains for surface tension reduction. They were identified as Natrialba sp. BG1 and N3. The biosurfactants production was optimized and the produced emulsifiers were partially purified and identified using FTIR and NMR. Sequential statistical optimization, Plackett–Burman (PB) and Box–Behnken Designs (BBD) were carried out using 5 factors: oil, NaCl, casamino acids, pH, and inoculum size. The most significant factors were used for the next Response Surface Methodology experiment. The final optimal conditions for biosurfactants production were the inoculum size 2% pH 11 and NaCl 250 g/L, for Natrialba sp. BG1 and inoculum size 2.2%, pH 10 and NaCl 100 g/L for Natrialba sp. N3. The produced biosurfactants were tested for wound healing and the results indicated that Natrialba sp. BG1 biosurfactants is more efficient than Natrialba sp. N3 biosurfactants. Biosurfactants extracts were tested for their cytotoxic effects on normal cell line as well as on different cancer cells using MTT assay. The findings demonstrated that varying concentrations of the biosurfactants (31.25, 62.5, 125, 250, 500 and 1000 µg/mL) exhibited cytotoxic effects on the cell lines being tested. Additionally, the outcomes unveiled the presence of anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties for both biosurfactants. Consequently, they could potentially serve as natural, safe, and efficient novel agents for combating cancer, promoting wound healing, and providing anti-inflammatory and antioxidant benefits.

Categorization of Sugar Beet Varieties for Water Saving in Sandy Soils Using Factor Analysis Scores

AbstractWater shortage in dry and semi-arid regions is a major agricultural challenge. This study investigated the performance of ten imported monogerm sugar beet varieties under continuous deficiency irrigation using a drip system on a private farm in the Wadi El-Natrun region, El-Beheira Governorate, Egypt, during two growing seasons, 2021/2022 and 2022/2023. The study utilized a novel method, a crossbar graph, to effectively visualize statistical data. The results showed significant interaction effects between sugar beet varieties and water deficit levels for all traits, indicating varying responses of the varieties to different levels of drought stress (75% and 55%). Drought stress levels (75% and 55%) had an adverse effect on the root yield of the ten varieties of sugar beet that were investigated. The exploratory factor analysis was applied to investigate and describe the relationship between ten different varieties of sugar beet and water stress treatments. Varieties Symbol, Stikhiyn, Volua, and Klara were characterized as moderate and tolerant with high performance, and they received the highest score in factor analysis. These varieties are recommended for cultivation under moderate and severe stress conditions. Factor analysis scores can be used as selection criteria for sugar beet varieties.

Groundwater desalination for agricultural purposes using reverse osmosis and nanofiltration technologies: Case study wadi El-natrun, Egypt

The current study aims to assess the water quality in Wadi El-Natrun (Egypt) for agricultural purposes and to design an optimal desalination system that considers the water quality, the power consumption, and the total cost of the system. Water quality was evaluated based on four indices: electrical conductivity (EC), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), residual sodium carbonate (RSC), and toxicity risk of three ions (sodium, boron, and chloride). The proposed desalination systems are single- and double-stage hybrid systems based on reverse osmosis (RO) and nanofiltration (NF) membranes. The performance of these systems was evaluated and compared in terms of the quality of permeated water for agricultural uses. The net present value (NPV) was also used as an economic criterion to determine the optimal system for agricultural purposes from an economic point of view. The results showed that most of the wells investigated are not suitable for direct irrigation before treatment due to problems of salinity, sodium adsorption, and chloride toxicity. Reverse osmosis membranes have proven to be superior to nanofiltration for producing high-quality water for agricultural purposes. However, single-stage systems with nanofiltration membranes are the most cost-effective option for most of the wells investigated in the study; they are the best for 30 out of 47 wells. It is also concluded that the use of nanofiltration desalination technology for irrigation purposes is a feasible solution that would encourage investors to expand reclamation projects in the Western desert in Egypt.

Some novel bioactivities of Virgibacillus halodenitrificans carotenoids, isolated from Wadi El-Natrun lakes

Carotenoids come in second among the most frequent natural pigments and are utilized in medications, nutraceuticals, cosmetics, food pigments, and feed supplements. Based on recent complementary work, Virgibacillus was announced for the first time as a member of Wadi El-Natrun salt and soda lakes microbiota, identified as Virgibacillus halodenitrificans, and named V. halodenitrificans DASH; hence, this work aimed to investigate several in vitro medicinal bioactivities of V. halodenitrificans DASH carotenoids. The carotenoid methanolic extract showed antioxidant activity based on diphenylpicrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging capacity with a half-maximal concentration (IC50) of 1.6 mg/mL as well as nitric oxide (NO) scavenging action expressed by an IC50 of 46.4 µg/mL. The extract showed considerable inhibitory activity for alpha-amylase (α-amylase) and alpha-glucosidase (α-glucosidase) enzymes (IC50 of 100 and 173.4 μg/mL, respectively). Moreover, the extract displayed selective anticancer activity against Caco-2 (IC50 = 138.96 µg/mL) and HepG-2 cell lines (IC50 = 31.25 µg/mL), representing colorectal adenocarcinoma and hepatoblastoma. Likewise, the extract showed 98.9 % clearance for human hepatitis C virus (HCV) using reverse transcription quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), HCV-NS5B polymerase activity inhibition (IC50 = 27.4 µg/mL), and selective inhibitory activity against human coronavirus (HCoV 229E) using the plaque reduction assay (IC50 = 53.5 µg/mL). As far as we can tell, the anticancer, antiviral, and antidiabetic attributes of Virgibacillus carotenoids are, de novo, reported in this work which accordingly invokes further exploration of the other medicinal, biotechnological, and industrial applications of Virgibacillus and haloalkaliphilic bacteria carotenoids.

Ecosystem and Commercializing of Fish in a Rich-Minerals, Low-Salinity Closed Lake

Wadi El Natrun is an elongated narrow depression in the Western Desert of Egypt. The depression characterized by many ancient alkaline salt lakes. These lakes are filled with water in winter and dried up in summer. Recently, some lakes become permanently dried, while others become submerged throughout the year as El Bieda Lake. El Bieda Lake has undergone ecological changes due to the prolonged extraction of minerals and the continual discharging of freshwater. This study investigates the recent biotic and abiotic changes of this lake and discusses its fisheries opportunities. The lake’s water is well-oxygenated, rich with different inorganic nutrients, and characterized by a low salinity. Sodium and chloride ion concentrations are lower than the equivalent surface seawater, while magnesium, calcium, potassium, sulfate, and bicarbonate ions are higher. The lake has low plankton species richness with high biomass and high nutritional values. More recently, two cichlid species, Oreochromis aureus and Coptodon zillii, have colonized the lake. Summer characterized by a very low mortality for Oreochromis aureus and a poor representation of Coptodon zillii. However, both species shared the catch the rest of the year. The high biomass and nutritional quality of plankton communities, as well as the dense phytobenthic film, indicate that the lake is currently below its carrying capacity. The well-oxygenated water, high biomass of plankton and phytobenthic diatoms, and the expected changes in salinity suggest that introducing the euryhaline, commercially valuable, and fast-growing Mugil cephalus or Chelon ramada in El Bieda Lake is highly advisable.

Identifying SNP markers associated with distinctness, uniformity, and stability testing in Egyptian fenugreek genotypes.

Distinctness, uniformity, and stability (DUS) test is the legal requirement in crop breeding to grant the intellectual property right for new varieties by evaluating their morphological characteristics across environments. On the other hand, molecular markers accurately identify genetic variations and validate the purity of the cultivars. Therefore, genomic DUS can improve the efficiency of traditional DUS testing. In this study, 112 Egyptian fenugreek genotypes were grown in Egypt at two locations: Wadi El-Natrun (Wadi), El-Beheira Governorate, with salty and sandy soil, and Giza, Giza governorate, with loamy clay soil. Twelve traits were measured, of which four showed a high correlation above 0.94 over the two locations. We observed significant genotype-by-location interactions (GxL) for seed yield, as it was superior in Wadi, with few overlapping genotypes with Giza. We attribute this superiority in Wadi to the maternal habitat, as most genotypes grew in governorates with newly reclaimed salty and sandy soil. As a first step toward genomic DUS, we performed an association study, and out of 38,142 SNPs, we identified 39 SNPs demonstrating conditional neutrality and four showing pleiotropic effects. Forty additional SNPs overlapped between both locations, each showing a similar impact on the associated trait. Our findings highlight the importance of GxL in validating the effect of each SNP to make better decisions about its suitability in the marker-assisted breeding program and demonstrate its potential use in registering new plant varieties.

The Monastery of St. Bishoy in Wadi Al-Natrun reveals its treasure of the unique Encaustic paintings

The Monastery of St. Bishoy in Wadi Al-Natrun reveals its treasure of the unique Encaustic paintings

Assessment of Potential Inscription of Wadi El-Natroun Monasteries in World Heritage List and the Possibilities of Development its Religious and Heritage Tourism

Objectives: The primary objective of this study is to evaluate the tourism potentials of the site of Wadī el-Natroun monasteries in Egypt, which holds religious and historical significance. Currently, only four monasteries remain intact: St. Macarius, Anba Bishoi (or Bishoy), Baramus and Surian. They date back to the 4th and 5th centuries AD when monasticism was initiated in Egypt. These monasteries comprise valuable artistic treasures such as icons, murals, manuscripts, unique books, etc. Additionally, the area holds importance as it is part of The Holy Family Journey in Egypt, with the desert of Scété in Wadi el-Natroun playing a role. The Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities has made several efforts to nominate this site for inclusion on UNESCO's World Heritage list.&#x0D; Methodos: The study employed various approaches, with the most important being historical and descriptive analytical approaches. Field studies were conducted to assess the cultural heritage of Wadi El-Natroun Monasteries according to UNESCO's criteria.&#x0D; Results :The study revealed the outstanding universal value of both the monasteries and the contiguous area. However, there are threats jeopardizing the site, such as some lakes drying up as a result of pollution and waste disposal.&#x0D; Conclusions: The study concludes that inscribing Wadi El-Natroun Monasteries on the World Heritage List would significantly increase international and local tourism interest in the site, preserve it, and attract a greater number of visitors. This would contribute to the development of the local community by improving the area and increasing the number of tourists.

Application of Geoelectric Technique in Groundwater Protection of Quaternary Aquifer in Wadi El Natrun, Egypt

Qualitative and quantitative interpretations of the accessible geoelectrical resistivity data were conducted in the area located to the west of Nile Delta on both sides of the Cairo-Alexandria desert road, between latitudes 30.190816° and 30.745892° N and longitudes 29.797607° and 30.702070° E, in the northern Western Desert of Egypt. The study area is covered by thick sedimentary exposures ranging from the Miocene to the Quaternary period. Geological factors such as lithology and geological structures significantly influence the groundwater in the study area. The Quaternary, Pliocene, and Miocene eras make up the majority of strata in the study region that require water.&#x0D; The study conducted twenty-three vertical electrical resistivity soundings using the Schlumberger array to define the shallow subsurface geological inferences and investigate the possibilities of finding underground water accumulations and its contamination with clay lenses. The examination of the obtained electric resistivity values revealed the segmentation of the examined section into five geoelectrical units with lateral variations in thicknesses, lithologies, and features. The five geoelectrical units had different compositions, with the first surface unit consisting of silt clay and relatively high resistivity sands and gravels that have been altered laterally. After the surface unit, resistivity ranges from relatively modest to high. Intercalation of sand and clay occurs in the second unit, followed by lenses of relatively medium-resistance coarse sand and clay in the third and fourth units, possibly forming an aquifer, and finally relatively low-resistance sand and clay in the fifth unit.&#x0D; Due to the haphazard drilling of hundreds of water wells, significant hydrogeological and environmental issues, such as soil salinization, water head decline, and groundwater salinity deterioration, have occurred. These issues have attracted significant expenditures in the field of land reclamation, both on small and large-scale projects. The study area is divided into five main geoelectrical layers observed along this cross area, as follows:&#x0D; The first surface geoelectrical layer (layer A) is characterized by relatively high resistivity ranging from 8.21 to 595.3 Ohm.m. The thickness of this layer varies from 2.1 to 8.86 m. This layer represents the dry surface cover of the area and consists of gravel, sand, and silt clay.&#x0D; The second geoelectrical layer (layer B) represents the dry layer lying above the water-bearing formation. It generally consists of sand and clay intercalation. The resistivity of this layer varies from 3.49 to 91.18 Ohm.m, and the thickness of this layer ranges from 17.13 to 38.3 m.&#x0D; The third geoelectrical layer (layer C1) is the water-bearing formation that generally consists of coarse sand and clay. The resistivity of this layer varies from 4.41 to 37.5 Ohm.m, and the thickness ranges from 10.38 to 54 m.&#x0D; The fourth geoelectric layer (layer C2) represents the lower part of the water-bearing formation. It consists of clayey sand and clay. The resistivity of this layer varies from 1.83 to 30.1 Ohm.m, and the thickness ranges from 17.78 to 31.35 m.&#x0D; The last geoelectric layer (layer D) represents the lower layer of investigation, consisting mainly of clay. The resistivity of this layer is generally low, varying within a narrow range of 26.7-39.8 Ohm.m.&#x0D; Finally the current study highlights the necessity of conducting in-depth geomorphological assessment studies before developing new reclamation projects, in addition to soil and water assessment.

In Search of Clement of Alexandria’s Hypotyposes

This article aims to contribute to the discussion about Clement of Alexandria’s Hypotyposes and the alleged existence of the manuscript of this work. The only modern witness of the manuscript was Louis-Alexandre d’Antraigues, who claims to have seen it in the Monastery of Saint Macarius in Wadi Natrun in 1779. The article re-examines Eric Osborn’s remarkable efforts to follow d’Antraigues’s testimony and find the manuscript in the last decades of the twentieth century. Osborn’s dedicated account is supplemented by a survey of skeptical reactions to d’Antraigues’s testimony and brief comments on the manuscript of d’Antraigues’s testimony. The article concludes that doubts about d’Antraigues’s veracity are well substantiated and that d’Antraigues’s testimony about the manuscript should be counted among the fictional elements of his report.

Screening for Extremophilic Lipase Producing Bacteria: Partial Purification and Characterization of Thermo-Halophilic, Solvent Tolerant Lipase from Bacillus sp.

The introduced study aims to isolate potent lipase producing strain from extreme habitats. The aim is extended to characterize the produced enzyme with respect to the effect of salt, temperature, pH and different organic solvents. Tween 80 plate method was used for discriminating lipase producing strains in the isolation step. Lipase activity of the selected isolates was confirmed through Rhodamine B plate assay. The enzyme of the most potent isolate was partially purified using 80% ammonium sulphate, quantified, and characterized using the synthetic substrate, para nitrophenyl laurate (pNP-C12). Twenty-three lipase-producing isolates were screened from different soil samples in Wadi El-Natrun, Egypt. Among the tested strains, a thermo- halo-tolerant bacterial isolate identified as Bacillus sp. was the most potent in terms of lipase production under high temperature and high salt concentration. The enzyme displayed its optimal activity at 60 oC and 2 M NaCl. Moreover, it showed a robust stability in 4M NaCl up to 2 h incubation time. Non-polar solvents have significantly raised the enzyme activity by 300% and 350% for ethyl acetate and n-hexane, respectively. The obtained data introduces useful insights for applying lipases in chemical catalysis and food processing fields.

Diversity and Distribution Characteristics of Viruses from Soda Lakes.

Viruses are the most abundant living things and a source of genetic variation. Despite recent research, we know little about their biodiversity and geographic distribution. We used different bioinformatics tools, MG-RAST, genome detective web tools, and GenomeVx, to describe the first metagenomic examination of haloviruses in Wadi Al-Natrun. The discovered viromes had remarkably different taxonomic compositions. Most sequences were derived from double-stranded DNA viruses, especially from Myoviridae, Podoviridae, Siphoviridae, Herpesviridae, Bicaudaviridae, and Phycodnaviridae families; single-stranded DNA viruses, especially from the family Microviridae; and positive-strand RNA viruses, especially from the family Potyviridae. Additionally, our results showed that Myohalovirus chaoS9 has eight Contigs and is annotated to 18 proteins as follows: tail sheath protein, tco, nep, five uncharacterized proteins, HCO, major capsid protein, putative pro head protease protein, putative head assembly protein, CxxC motive protein, terl, HTH domain protein, and terS Exon 2. Additionally, Halorubrum phage CGphi46 has 19 proteins in the brine sample as follows: portal protein, 17 hypothetical proteins, major capsid protein, etc. This study reveals viral lineages, suggesting the Virus's global dispersal more than other microorganisms. Our study clarifies how viral communities are connected and how the global environment changes.

Reconstruction of the Holocene Paleogeography of Bani Salama, Wadi El‑Natrun, Egypt

Wadi El-Natrun depression lies about 100 km north-west of Cairo, just south of the ‘desert road’ between Cairo and Alexandria. The depression has a longitudinal morphology extending from the southeast to the northwest with average dimensions of about 60 km × 15 km. Bani Salama site lies in the eastern part of the depression, to the east of Fasda Lake, which is located at -27 m below sea level. Based on a geomorphological survey and local archaeology, we found that the site has been occupied by human societies since at least around 4000 years before the present. The site contains ruins of a temple and a castle dating back to the 12th Dynasty of the Pharaonic period (1985-1773 BC). The site also contains workshops of raw glass production dating back to Egypt’s Roman period (31 BC – AD 395). The aim of this study is to investigate the Holocene marsh deposits of Bani Salama, which are located between the Pliocene plateau and Fasda Lake. A sediment core (NAT-11) was taken from the site in June 2015. This core is investigated to understand the Holocene palaeo-geography, palaeoclimates and human impacts.

Plio-Pleistocene continental carbonates and silcretes in Wadi El-Natrun, NW Egypt: Their morphology and paleoenvironmental significance

To deduce the prevailing paleoenvironmental conditions during the deposition of the Plio-Pleistocene continental carbonate sequence at Wadi El-Natrun (NW Egypt), we examined and compared the macro- and micro-morphological, mineralogical and stable isotopic characteristics of calcretes, dolocretes, palustrine carbonates, and silcretes of the lower Pliocene Meikheimin and Plio-Pleistocene Qataji formations. Calcrete occurs in both formations and exhibits a variety of forms, including powdery, nodular, fracture-infill, massive and hard laminated crusts (hardpan). The calcretes developed in mixed vadose and phreatic diagenetic environments under an arid to semi-arid climate. Palustrine carbonates occur in the upper Qataji Formation and developed as nodular, desiccated, brecciated, mottled and pisoidal limestones that are interbedded with the calcretes. They exhibit varied micro-morphological features, including circum-granular and planar cracks, nodular and clotted fabrics, peloidal textures, infilling of burrows, root molds, and fenestral pores, which indicate modifications during subaerial exposure. The dolocrete facies in the upper Qataji Formation comprises laminated carbonate crusts. These include spheroidal dolomite and dolomicrite with Mg-rich clays that formed as primary precipitates in a continental setting. The silcretes consist of spheroidal, irregular opaline accumulations that formed as replacements of calcrete and dolocrete. These features reflect silicification in near-surface environments where there was an interplay between vadose and phreatic environments during deposition and early burial diagenesis. The stable isotopic data suggest deposition under warm, seasonally arid to semi-arid climatic conditions in an area dominated by C3 vegetation. The regional water table was higher in the early Pleistocene than during the early Pliocene but was subject to large fluctuations.