Wabash River Research Articles

Contrasting Population Demographics of Invasive Silver Carp between an Impounded and Free‐Flowing River

AbstractExtensive research has been conducted on Silver Carp Hypopthalmicthys molitrix in the heavily modified Illinois River in the midwestern United States due to the potential for populations to enter the Great Lakes; however, little research has been conducted on populations in unimpounded rivers. The Wabash River is an unimpounded large river in the U.S. Midwest that may be a good model for studying Silver Carp in unregulated river ecosystems that could potentially be invaded if reproducing populations in the Great Lakes are established. In this study we compared population demographics of Silver Carp in the Wabash and Illinois rivers. Abundance was over three times greater in the Illinois than in the Wabash River, although Wabash River Silver Carp had significantly greater mean length, age, and condition and a higher growth rate than did Illinois River Silver Carp. Although the heavily modified and degraded environment in the Illinois River may have aided in the rapid expansion of Silver Carp, intraspecific competition, increased commercial fishing, and competition with native species have likely reduced condition, decreased growth rate, and increased mortality rate of the population. Differences between Silver Carp populations in the Illinois and Wabash rivers suggest that the impacts of invasion may be reduced in ecosystems with little modification.Received May 1, 2014; accepted November 6, 2014

Egg size variability in an establishing population of invasive silver carp Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (Valenciennes, 1844)

Reproductive investment (e.g., egg size) is generally critical for the successful establishment of invasive species, with high variability often positively influencing success. Silver carp Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (Valenciennes, 1844) are highly successful invasive fish on a global scale and threaten biodiversity in a wide range of freshwater habitats. However, factors influencing egg size variability in silver carp are not fully understood. We collected drifting silver carp eggs from the Wabash River, Indiana (USA) throughout the 2012 and 2013 spawning seasons to examine egg diameter variation was related to environmental factors and across time. The Wabash River is largely unregulated with few backwater habitats, and the resident silver carp population is relatively new. As a result, the Wabash River offers the opportunity to observe an expanding silver carp population in a river with a comparatively “natural” flow regime. Egg size was positively correlated with both embryo total length and yolk sac volume, indicating larger silver carp eggs contain larger, better-provisioned embryos at a given developmental stage. Eggs collected in 2013 were significantly larger than those collected in 2012 despite a decline in mean length of mature females. Relationships between egg diameter and environmental factors appear complex, with relationships varying between years. Silver carp eggs displayed high variability in diameter, with a mean coefficient of variation of 9.5%. This high variation may reflect a diverse population of spawning females, but it may also constitute a reproductive strategy to facilitate egg transport across habitats and potentially reduce intraspecific competition. Such reproductive plasticity in silver carp and other invasive species is likely to be key for achieving reproductive success in newly invaded ecosystems despite the species’ naivety with novel and unpredictable environmental conditions therein.

Application of a calibrated/validated Agricultural Policy/Environmental eXtender model to assess sediment and nutrient delivery from the Wildcat Creek Mississippi River Basin Initiative-Cooperative Conservation Partnership Initiative

Wildcat Creek, a tributary to the Wabash River, was identified by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) as a priority watershed for its high sediment and nutrient loading contributions to the Mississippi River. As part of the Mississippi River Basin Initiative (MRBI), the incorporation of conservation practices was implemented through a Cooperative Conservation Partnership Initiative (CCPI) agreement using existing USDA programs. The objective of this work was to evaluate the potential water quality benefits of conservation practices placed in the Wildcat Creek Watershed through the MRBI-CCPI. Specifically, seven output variables (surface runoff, tile flow, sediments, total phosphorus [P], soluble P, soluble nitrogen [N], and soluble N in tile) were compared for four different row crop conservation practices (residue and tillage management no-till, residue and tillage management mulch-till, cover crops, and forage and biomass planting), and two manure application scenarios. Using the Agricultural Policy/Environmental eXtender (APEX) model, calibrated and validated for a field within the St. Joseph River Watershed, a modeling assessment was developed for current conservation practices incorporated at a similar watershed, Wildcat Creek. Annual average values were estimated for each simulated scenario, and percentage reductions were reported. Cover crops consistently reduced sediment and nutrient loads in runoff by more than 50% compared to the tillage baseline scenario, and removal of the manure application in the waste utilization scenario reduced the predicted total and soluble P amounts by 75% and 92%, respectively. When extrapolating the edge-of-field values predicted by the model to the area occupied by each conservation practice throughout the duration of the contracts at the Wildcat Creek Watershed, the total reductions were estimated to be almost 7,000 Mg (7,700 tn) of sediment (68% decrease), 20,000 kg (44,092 lb) of total P (73% decrease), 4,000 kg (8,818.5 lb) of soluble N in runoff (50% decrease), and 185,000 kg (414,00 lb) of soluble N in tile flow (43% decrease). Agricultural Policy/Environmental eXtender modeling is a useful tool for predicting sediment and nutrient loading information at the field-scale, which can be used to calculate the relative impact of conservation practices at the watershed scale when monitoring data are not available. The modeling results confirm the positive impact of these conservation practices and of the MRBI-CCPI initiative at improving water quality at the edge-of-field, and potentially at the Wildcat Creek, the Greater Wabash River Basins, and ultimately the Mississippi River Basin.

Effects of flow regime on growth rate in freshwater drum, Aplodinotus grunniens

Understanding the influence of flow regime hydrology on fish life history is essential for conserva- tion and management of lotic ecosystems. The objec- tives of this study were to investigate growth patterns of Wabash River freshwater drum Aplodinotus grunniens relativetoage,sex,and longtermflowregimevariation. Growth was estimated using back-calculated lengths from otolith measurements. Flow regime was described using Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration flow metrics calculated from long-term stream flow data at USGS stations. A generalized linear mixed model was used to modelgrowthasafunctionofage,sex,andflowregime. Freshwater drum growth was explained by variation in age, sex, and flow magnitude. Freshwater drum exhib- ited indeterminate growth relative to age. Mean growth rates and mean length at age were lower in males than females. High magnitude flow events were positively correlated with increased growth rates in both males and females. However, the effect of flow magnitude variation on growth was stronger in males. The primary flow regime metrics related to growth were magnitude- based and were not related to timing offlow events. The study provides evidence that long term variation in flow regime is a catalyst for alterations in freshwater drum growth rates.

Effects of Allometry, Sex, and River Location on Morphological Variation of Freshwater Drum Aplodinotus grunniens in the Wabash River, USA

Morphology frequently varies with phylogeny, body size, sex, and phenotypic plasticity. However, the relative influence of these variables is unknown for most taxa. Morphological variation of Freshwater Drum Aplodinotus grunniens in the Wabash River, USA was described using geometric morphometrics. A MANCOVA model of shape indicated that morphological variation was primarily influenced by allometry (body size), sex, and river location. Among all individuals, at least 50% of the variability in morphology was a product of body size while sex and river km (collection locale) accounted for 10% and 5% of the overall variability in shape, respectively. However, when mature and immature individuals were analyzed separately, mature individuals demonstrated no morphological signal concurrent with river km, while at least 45% of the variability in immature shape was attributed to river locale. The contributions of allometry, sex, and river gradient on Freshwater Drum morphology suggest that morphological variation is largely a result of a combination of developmental, sexual, and environmental influences.

Wabash River Freshwater DrumAplodinotus grunniensDiet: Effects of Body Size, Sex, and River Gradient

AbstractThe objectives of this study were to describe the diets of freshwater drum Aplodinotus grunniens in the Wabash River in the Midwestern United States. We used a multivariate ordination approach (nonmetric multidimensional scaling) to describe drum diets combined with a generalized linear model to test for covariation of diet with body size, sex, and longitudinal river gradient. Hydropsychidae (trichoptera, caddisfly larvae), pleuroceridae (gastropoda), and heptageniidae (ephemeroptera, mayfly larvae) were the most consumed prey items (∼75% of overall diets). Among all freshwater drum, hydropsychidae, pleuroceridae, and heptageniidae were present in 69%, 23%, and 38% of stomachs, respectively. Freshwater drum diets were similar along an upstream–downstream river gradient spanning 350 river km, but varied with body size and sex. Small- and medium-sized fish tended to consume more diptera and annelids compared with the largest individuals, which fed on mollusks and crayfish. With control for body size, the diets of male individuals were composed of more diptera (chironomidae) and annelid prey items compared with female individuals, whose diets included more molluscs and crayfish. Overall, we interpret the lack of diet diversity in freshwater drum with Wabash River longitudinal gradient as evidence of diet specialization. Alternatively, we propose that a potential dietary–river-gradient signal may be diluted as a function of increased freshwater drum longitudinal movements.

Flow structure and channel morphodynamics of meander bend chute cutoffs: A case study of the Wabash River, USA

[1] This paper documents the three-dimensional structure of flow and bed morphology of two developing chute cutoffs on a single meander bend on the lower Wabash River, USA, and relates the flow structure to patterns of morphologic change in the evolving cutoff channels. The upstream end of the cutoff channels is characterized by: (1) a zone of flow velocity reduction/stagnation and bar development in the main channel across from the cutoff entrance, (2) flow separation and bar development along the inner (left) bank of the cutoff channel immediately downstream from the cutoff entrance, and (3) helical motion and outward advection of flow momentum entering the cutoff channel, leading to erosion of the outer (right) bank of the cutoff channel. At the downstream end of the cutoff channels, the major hydrodynamic and morphologic features are: (1) flow stagnation along the bank of the main channel immediately upstream of the cutoff channel mouth, (2) convergence of flows from the cutoff and main channels, (3) helical motion of flow from the cutoff, (4) a zone of reduced velocity along the bank of the main channel immediately downstream from the cutoff channel mouth, and (5) development of a prominent bar complex that penetrates into the main channel and extends from the stagnation zone upstream to downstream of the cutoff mouth. These results provide the basis for a conceptual model of chute-cutoff dynamics in which the upstream and downstream ends of a cutoff channel are treated as a bifurcation and confluence, respectively.

An Approach Using a 1D Hydraulic Model, Landsat Imaging and Generalized Likelihood Uncertainty Estimation for an Approximation of Flood Discharge

Collection and investigation of flood information are essential to understand the nature of floods, but this has proved difficult in data-poor environments, or in developing or under-developed countries due to economic and technological limitations. The development of remote sensing data, GIS, and modeling techniques have, therefore, proved to be useful tools in the analysis of the nature of floods. Accordingly, this study attempts to estimate a flood discharge using the generalized likelihood uncertainty estimation (GLUE) methodology and a 1D hydraulic model, with remote sensing data and topographic data, under the assumed condition that there is no gauge station in the Missouri river, Nebraska, and Wabash River, Indiana, in the United States. The results show that the use of Landsat leads to a better discharge approximation on a large-scale reach than on a small-scale. Discharge approximation using the GLUE depended on the selection of likelihood measures. Consideration of physical conditions in study reaches could, therefore, contribute to an appropriate selection of informal likely measurements. The river discharge assessed by using Landsat image and the GLUE Methodology could be useful in supplementing flood information for flood risk management at a planning level in ungauged basins. However, it should be noted that this approach to the real-time application might be difficult due to the GLUE procedure.

Partitioning of inorganic elements in pilot-scale and demonstration-scale entrained-flow gasifiers

The integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) has been recognized as one of the leading methods of power generation with near zero CO2 emissions from fossil fuels via carbon capture and storage. A suite of emerging IGCC technologies provide the promise of both high efficiency and reduced capital costs. Many of these operate at elevated temperature and hence a number of inorganic elements (i.e. elements other than C, H, O, N and S) may be present in the syngas at later stages of processing than is typical of conventional processing arrangements. Experimental results are presented for inorganic element distribution in slag and fly ash from seven entrained-flow slagging gasification plants. Data for the Siemens, Louisiana Gasification Technology Inc. (LGTI), Wabash River, ELCOGAS and Shell gasification systems were taken from literature. Data for the CanmetENERGY and Pratt and Whitney Rocketdyne (PWR) systems are presented for the first time. Mass balances and enrichment factors are calculated. All values are available in supplementary data tables. Challenges in data interpretation and general trends are highlighted. Mass balance closures for low volatility elements are within the range of 80–120% for the PWR, LGTI and Shell systems. Closures for the CanmetENERGY, Wabash River and ELCOGAS systems are further from 100%. Accumulation, unaccounted streams, measurement inaccuracy and sampling imperfections can cause poor mass balance closures. Comparison of enrichment factors for slag and fly ash demonstrate that many elements have similar fates in gasification systems as they do in combustion systems, although several elements are less volatile in gasification systems. Partitioning can vary for a given element when comparing different gasification systems and different operating conditions. The assessments of several elements which are of environmental or technological concern are provided as examples.

Spatial and temporal influences on the physiological condition of invasive silver carp.

We quantified nutritional and stress parameters (alkaline phosphatase, cholesterol, protein, triglycerides, cortisol, and glucose) in invasive silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) inhabiting four large rivers throughout three distinct time periods in the Midwestern USA. Examining the basic biology and ecology of an invasive species is crucial to gain an understanding of the interaction between an organism and its environment. Analysis of the physiological condition of wild-caught silver carp across broad spatial and temporal scales is essential because stress and nutritional parameters can link individuals to their habitats and vary among populations across environments. During each time period, we collected blood samples from individual silver carp in the Illinois River and portions of the Mississippi, Ohio, and Wabash rivers in Illinois. We tested for relationships between silver carp nutrition and stress across rivers, reaches within rivers, and time periods. Principal component analyses separated physiological parameters into a stress component (cortisol and glucose) and two nutritional components representative of short-term feeding (alkaline phosphatase, protein, and triglycerides) and body energy reserves (cholesterol and protein). Akaike's information criterion suggested that time period had the greatest influence on stress. Stress levels were consistent in all four rivers, and declined across time periods. Akaike's information criterion also suggested that interactions of time period and river had the greatest influence on short-term feeding and body energy reserves. There was no specific pattern across time periods within each river, nor was there a pattern across rivers. Our results provide a better understanding of nutritional and stress conditions in invasive silver carp across a broad landscape and temporal scale, with implications for managing and predicting the spread of this species.

The effect of spatially uniform and non-uniform precipitation bias correction methods on improving NEXRAD rainfall accuracy for distributed hydrologic modeling

In order to improve the accuracy of rainfall estimates from next generation radar (NEXRAD) uncertainties, data assimilation technique is performed by considering NEXRAD and available rain gauges which can be used to assimilate spatially uniform Multisensor Precipitation Estimator (MPE) scheme and non-uniform (based on rainfall interpolation and bias interpolation) NEXRAD bias estimations during a storm event by Kalman filtering. Even though NEXRAD provides a better spatial representation of rainfall variability than rain gauge information, it suffers from uncertainties and biases due to Z–R (reflectivity–rainfall) conversion method and limitation of available rain gauge information for NEXRAD bias correction in a particular river basin. Analysis of correcting NEXRAD bias rainfall with three different bias correction schemes is described in this study. The prediction accuracy of the STORE DHM (Storage Released based Distributed Hydrologic Model) simulations is also evaluated by using three different NEXRAD bias corrected rainfall inputs. The Upper Wabash River (17,907 km2) and the Upper Cumberland River (38,160 km2) basins are selected as the study areas to evaluate rainfall input sensitivity on different spatial characteristics. Use of spatially non-uniform NEXRAD bias correction schemes results has better rainfall and prediction accuracy compared to that of spatially uniform NEXRAD bias correction rainfall.

Modeling the potential impacts of climate change on streamflow in agricultural watersheds of the Midwestern United States

The ability to predict spatial variation in streamflow at the watershed scale is essential to understanding the potential impacts of projected climate change on aquatic systems in this century. However, problems associated with single outlet-based model calibration and validation procedures can confound the prediction of spatial variation in streamflow under future climate change scenarios. The goal of this study is to calibrate and validate a distributed hydrologic model, the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT), using distributed streamflow data (1978–2009), and to assess the potential impacts of climate change on future streamflow (2051–2060 and 2086–2095) for the Rock River (RRW), Illinois River (IRW), Kaskaskia River (KRW), and Wabash River (WRW) watersheds in the Midwestern United States, primarily in Illinois. The potential impacts of climate change on future water resources are assessed using SWAT streamflow simulations driven by projections from nine global climate models (GCMs) under a maximum of three SRES scenarios (A1B, A2, and B1). Results from model validation indicate reasonable spatial and temporal predictions of streamflow, suggesting that a multi-site calibration strategy is necessary to accurately predict spatial variation in watershed hydrology. Compared with past streamflow records, predicted future streamflow based on climate change scenarios will tend to increase in the winter but decrease in the summer. According to 26 GCM projections, annual streamflows from 2051 – 2060 (2086–2095) are projected to decrease up to 45.2% (61.3%), 48.7% (49.8%), 48.7% (56.6%), and 41.1% (44.6%) in the RRW, IRW, KRW, and WRW, respectively. In addition, under the projected changes in climate, intra- and inter-annual streamflow variability generally does not increase over time. Results suggest that increased temperature could change the rate of evapotranspiration and the form of precipitation, subsequently influencing monthly streamflow patterns. Moreover, the spatially varying pattern of streamflow variability under future climate conditions suggests different buffering capabilities among regions. As such, regionally specific management strategies are necessary to mitigate the potential impacts of climate change and preserve aquatic ecosystems and water resources.

Cryptic phenotypic plasticity in populations of the freshwater prosobranch snail, Pleurocera canaliculata

We sampled four populations of the robustly shelled Pleurocera canaliculata from large rivers and five pleurocerid populations bearing more fusiform shells (nominally P. acuta and P. pyrenellum) from smaller streams in a study area extending from upstate New York to northern Alabama, USA. Gene frequencies at 9 allozyme-encoding loci revealed that each population of P. acuta or P. pyrenellum was more genetically similar to the P. canaliculata population inhabiting the larger river immediately downstream than to any nominal conspecific. Thus, the extensive intraspecific variation in shell robustness displayed by these nine populations has apparently been rendered cryptic by taxonomic confusion. We then employed geometric morphometrics to explore a gradient in shell morphology from the acuta form to the typical canaliculata form in 18 historic samples collected down the length of Indiana’s Wabash River. The shell forms appeared generally distinctive on the major axes yielded by relative warp analysis (increasing robustness and decreasing spire elongation), although some overlap was apparent. MANCOVA returned a significant relationship between multivariate shape variation and stream size, as measured by drainage area. Possible drivers for this phenomenon include an environmental cline in the risk of dislodgement due to hydrodynamic drag and shifts in the community of predators.

The Chase for Clorion

When Laurel Thatcher Ulrich entitled her book Well-Behaved Women Seldom Make History, she could have been inspired by Martha Chase Owen, who, along with her first husband, Dr. Thomas G. Chase, and her second husband, Richard Owen, played an integral role in the second utopian society at New Harmony, Indiana. Martha, who raised many eyebrows and undoubtedly more than a few hackles during her lifetime, went on to leave behind her own legacy—one that until recently seemed doomed to anonymity. New Harmony’s history as a community of world-renowned scientists and educators has been well documented in the pages of this journal and elsewhere. Welsh social reformer Robert Owen purchased the young town on January 3, 1825, from Father George Rapp, a Lutheran separatist who had brought his German followers to America to seek religious freedom. Rapp and his fellow Harmonists, awaiting the second coming of Christ, had established their spiritual sanctuary on the banks of the Wabash River in 1814. Owen, on the other hand, wanted to create a new moral world, a society made perfect through free education and the abolition of social classes and personal wealth. His business partner, William Maclure of

Two Decades of Linear Site-Effect Observation (>2 Hz) in the Wabash Valley, Central United States--Context for the 2008 Illinois Earthquake Sequence

Abstract Much of the ground‐motion prediction effort in the central United States has been focused on deep (>>30 m) alluvial sites, such as those found in the Mississippi embayment. During the past 20 years we have collected over 200 high‐resolution, free‐field digital velocity records at sites in the Wabash and Ohio River valleys which are more typical of the areas outside the embayment. These ground‐motion records are from small to moderate‐size earthquakes located in the same area. The magnitudes range between M 3 and M 5.2, but the bulk of the recordings is associated with the 1987 M 4.96 and 2008 M 5.2 southeastern Illinois earthquakes, and the 2002 M 4.5 southwestern Indiana earthquake. We summarize the velocity recordings and site investigations for the 2008 southeastern Illinois earthquake sequence, put the findings into context with the previous observations, and quantify the reduction in ground‐motion variability that can be achieved with conventional site‐effect characterization techniques. Results show ground‐motion characteristics for the 2008 earthquake sequence are consistent with previous observations in the area, beginning with those associated with the 1987 southwestern Illinois earthquake. In addition, site‐effect corrections reduced the range of spectral amplitude for frequencies greater than 2 Hz between 40% and 70%, as well as the spectral variation by a factor of approximately four. The data also show that a peak ground velocity of 1.2 cm/s delineates a clear boundary separating Modified Mercalli intensities IV and V. This observation can be useful in scaling ground motions of historical seismicity, as well as predicting the effects of future events. We speculate these quantitative characteristics are likely representative of ground motions throughout most of the central United States with the exception of those in the infrequent thick‐sediment‐filled areas within major river valleys.

A Note on Blast-Monitor and Conventional Seismic Network Recordings of Moderate-Sized Earthquakes in the Central United States

Abstract Since the mid 1980s small and moderate‐sized earthquakes in the Ohio and Wabash River valleys of the central United States (CUS) have been digitally recorded by seismographs, called blast monitors, deployed to detect and characterize vibrations from explosions associated with regional mining and quarrying. Because there were relatively few conventional networked strong‐motion and broadband instruments for this area between 1980 and the early 2000s, the more than 200 collected observations have provided a widespread source of digital earthquake ground motions. Additional deployment of networked instrumentation during the last decade and their numerous recordings of the 18 April 2008 Mt. Carmel Illinois earthquake sequence have provided the first effective means for comparing free‐field blast‐monitor and conventional network ground motion observations. The peak ground motion characteristics for both data sets relative to a common predictive relationship are similar, suggesting that blast monitor observations compliment conventional network data for small and moderate‐sized ( M

Comparing Random Sample Q and R Methods for Understanding Natural Resource Attitudes

This study collects data on community views of the Wabash River in north-central Indiana using 36 representative statements. The statements were incorporated into two different formats: (1) a standard survey, or Likert-type, instrument and (2) a Q-methodology instrument for mailed distribution to two separate random samples of community residents, which allowed for comparing the results of these methodologies. The data were analyzed using factor analysis techniques. The analysis revealed that under identical sampling conditions, the results of Q and R methodologies are similar. Additional discussion focuses on the similarities and differences of these results and how Q methodology can contribute to our understanding of community attitudes toward natural resources.

Dynamics of nitrate and chloride during storm events in agricultural catchments with different subsurface drainage intensity (Indiana, USA)

Summary Drainage tiles buried beneath many naturally poorly drained agricultural fields in the Midwestern U.S. are believed to “short circuit” pools of NO 3 - -laden soil water and shallow groundwater directly into streams that eventually discharge to the Mississippi River. Although much is known about the mechanisms controlling this regionally pervasive practice of artificial drainage at the field-plot scale, an integrative assessment of the effect of drainage density (i.e., the number of tile drains per unit area) on the transport of nutrients and solutes in streams at the catchment scale is lacking. In this study, we quantified the flux and hydrological pathways of agricultural NO 3 - and road-salt Cl− from catchments lying within the Wabash River Basin, a major source of NO 3 - to the Mississippi River. The paired catchments differ primarily in drainage density (70% vs. 31%, by catchment area), with essentially all other agricultural management, land use, and soil drainage characteristics remaining equal. Our study revealed two significant hydrological responses to increased drainage density: (1) more near-surface storm event water (dilute in both NO 3 - and Cl - ) was transported early in the storm and (2) higher transport of Cl−-laden pre-event soil water relative to shallow groundwater elevated in NO 3 - occurred later in the storm. These patterns are consistent with a proposed conceptual model in which increased drainage density results in (1) greater transport of soil water to streams and (2) a delayed rise in the water table. With respect to nutrient management implications, these results indicate that increased drainage density impacts subsurface pools of Cl− and NO 3 - differently, a finding that we propose is linked to soil/ground water dynamics in artificially drained agricultural catchments.

The effects of 2011 Ohio and Mississippi river valley flooding on Cairo, Illinois, area

In April 2011, the Ohio River began flooding farmland and cities from Pennsylvania to Illinois that were not protected by levees. The US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) had realized as early as March that the torrential rains and heavy snow melt across the Upper Midwest were setting up the Mississippi River Basin for an epic flood year (USACE 2011). By late April, lakes and reservoirs along the Wabash and Ohio rivers were filled to capacity and cities without levees, such as Metropolis, Illinois, had lower sections covered by floodwaters. Cairo, Illinois, and many of the cities on the lower Mississippi River were protected by levees.

Vascular Plant Flora of Two Natural Areas in Wabash County, Indiana

The Kokiwanee (56 ha) and Hathaway (29 ha) preserves are located in northeastern Indiana. Both sites include gorges cut by tributaries of the Wabash River, which produce a range of microenvironments that are unusual for this part of Indiana. Floristic inventories were done from 2004 through 2011. Kokiwanee had 467 vascular plant species, while Hathaway had 316. A total of 529 species, representing 325 genera and 104 families, were found in the two sites combined, with 254 species being found in both. Many of the 213 species found only at Kokiwanee occurred in mature forest on a southwest-facing bluff or in fens; most of the 62 species found only at Hathaway were found in a crop field, old fields, or an east-facing gorge wall. Forty-three percent of the species found were county records. Nineteen percent of species were exotic, a significantly lower proportion than for the state as a whole. One state threatened-list species (Dactylorhiza viridis) and three state watch-list species (Liparis loeselii, Panax quinquefolius, and Veratrum woodii) were found. A number of species are near their northern range limits at these sites. Floristic quality is relatively high.