Vulnerability Of Rural Communities Research Articles

438. Characteristics and Epidemiology of a Native American Community with a High Prevalence of COVID-19

BackgroundCOVID research and reporting has focused on large urban populations. However, limited data suggests that rural Native American (NA) populations are disparately impacted. We serve a well-defined NA population of ≈18,000 that is relatively geographically isolated in the White Mountains of eastern Arizona. Our first case SARS-CoV-2 was confirmed April 1st. We have since confirmed an attack rate significantly higher than most of the United States. We provide testing and case trends in addition to characteristics of the first 800 cases.MethodsWe sequentially reviewed the charts of all laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 patients from April 1 to June 3, 2020. In addition to calculating prevalence and rates, we provided summary statistics that were used to describe testing breakdown, demographics, symptoms, and co-morbidities.ResultsFrom April 1 to June 3, we tested 2,662 persons, of which 884 (33.2%) were positive. The estimated prevalence of the time of writing is 4.9% and the rate of 4,911 per 100,000 persons. Data compiled from the first 800 laboratory-confirmed patients is summarized in table 1. Median age for confirmed cases was 40.6 (IQR 28–54). 555 cases (72.1%) were symptomatic. The most common symptoms were cough (67.7%), subjective fever (39.5%), and muscle aches (36.8%). 30.6% of confirmed cases were asymptomatic at the time of testing. The majority of cases were among persons aged 30–39 years (22.9%). Some of the most common comorbidities in confirmed cases included cardiovascular disease (30.4%), substance abuse (30.1%), and diabetes (25.0%). There were 18 (2.04%) deaths.Clinical findings among symptomatic patients ConclusionWe observed a significantly higher prevalence (10-times) and attack rate of (17-times) COVID-19 in a well-defined NA population, when compared to the general Arizona population. We provide characteristics of these cases and report that nearly a third were asymptomatic at the time of testing. More research is needed to understand the rapid spread of COVID-19 in vulnerable rural communities.Disclosures All Authors: No reported disclosures

Socio‐biodiversity supply chain: Sustainable practices of a Brazilian cosmetic company

AbstractThe purpose of this article is to analyze and describe sustainable practices based on biodiversity assets adopted by one of the largest global cosmetics company, located in Brazil. The company occupies the 19th position of the Global Ranking 100 Sustainability. The research method is bibliographic research that employed open, non‐classified documents publicized by the company. The main findings of the study underscore the relevance of the rural communities in developing a supply chain based on biodiversity as well as the importance of the relationships among the tiers to implement a sustainable business model. The company relies on high‐quality products associated with environmental development. Currently, biodiversity suppliers account for 80% circa of natural raw materials, the so‐called biodiversity asset, which represents the core of the sustainable business model of the company. The findings can be generalized by helping other supply chains to develop and implement sustainable business models supported by biodiversity. Such type of a model can help companies achieve expressive business performance and, at the same time, social relevance to peripheral or vulnerable rural communities.

An assessment of remote sensing-based drought index over different land cover types in southern Africa

ABSTRACT An understanding of drought and land cover interaction plays a crucial role in vegetation vulnerability studies and land use planning. However, there is paucity of information on drought, land cover and land use interaction in southern Africa. We analysed the drought impact on land cover using Globcover land cover data and Vegetation Condition Index (VCI) for the 2015 to 2016 season. The 2015 to 2016 season was chosen because it was the worst drought in southern Africa since the 1980s. We developed a novel land cover ‘social pixels’ or ‘village pixels’ which represents rural communities. The Kruskal–Wallis test was used to evaluate whether there is a significant difference in drought impact among the land cover classes. The response of each land cover to drought impact was calculated by correlating Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). Our results reveal that the evergreen forests and the flooded vegetation were the most severely affected by the 2015–2016 drought. However, the lowest VCI values were recorded within the village pixels land cover, indicating the vulnerability of rural communities to drought impacts. The vegetation response to drought impact ranged from 2 months (crops) to 8 months (flooded vegetation). With regards to drought recurrence (1998 to 2018), the crop and grassland land cover recorded the highest drought frequency whilst the forest had the least drought frequency.

How Do Climate and Nonclimatic Variables Influence the Production of Agricultural Staple Crops in Vulnerable Rural Communities in the Bawku Municipality of Northern Ghana?

We examined the influence of climate (temperature and rainfall) and nonclimatic variables (soil fertility using soil pH and organic matter) on the production of agricultural staple crops (maize [Zea mays L.], millet [Pennisetum glaucum L.], and rice [Oryza sativa L.]) in vulnerable communities in the Bawku Municipality of northern Ghana. Using five selected farming communities as study sites, multiple datasets were obtained from primary and secondary sources. Participatory approaches together with questionnaires were used as data collection tools to quantify and qualify climate (temperature and rainfall) and nonclimatic variables (soil fertility using soil pH and organic matter) and crop production. The Mann–Kendall trend test results indicate a significant variation in annual rainfall for the 15-year period (1999 to 2013) with a relatively stable mean temperature variation in the Municipality. The results of the multiple regression indicate that climatic and nonclimatic factors, particularly rainfall, soil pH, and organic matter have a significant positive effect on maize, millet, and rice when other factors are held constant. We conclude that to ease the burden of climate on production, better irrigation facilities be provided for the Municipality and weather forecasting information on the pending growing season be made available to farmers to enable them take informed decision. Also, policy on climate adaptation should take into account the interaction of external drivers of climate and nonclimatic variables to better build farmers’ resilience for food security at the local level.

How Can Sustainable Agriculture Increase Climate Resilience? A Systematic Review

In the last few decades, a great deal has been written on the use of sustainable agriculture to improve the resilience of ecosystem services to climate change. However, no tangible and systematic evidence exists on how this agriculture would participate in alleviating impacts on vulnerable rural communities. This paper provides a narrative systematic review (SR) integrated with a bibliometric analysis and a concept network analysis to determine how, in this changing climate, sustainable agriculture can increase the resilience of agrosystems. Our search ranged from the date of the first relevant article until the end of 2018. The results generated demonstrated the following: (a) Only single practices and methods have been studied to assess the impacts on single ecosystem services; (b) Soil quality and health are considered a key indicator of sustainable agriculture; (c) Although the assessed practices and methods were shown to improve the biodiversity of agrosystems, which makes them more resilient to extreme climate events, we are still far from developing interdisciplinary and multidimensional agriculture that integrates all management aspects and generates a full range of ecosystem services. In conclusion, this study addressed the following recommendations for the scientific community and policymakers to orient future research strategies and efforts: (a) The integration of all agrosystem services into sustainable management using an ecosystem-based approach on a life-cycle basis using the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) method; (b) Improving the scientific understanding of traditional knowledge to facilitate greater synergy and further integration; (c) The unification of assessment methods and indicators for the quantification of impacts; (d) The creation of a platform to share, monitor, screen, and approve assessments and evaluations of sustainable agriculture by region.

A review of beneficial phytochemicals and postharvest studies on some indigenous leafy vegetables from the Mpumalanga Province of South Africa

Indigenous leafy vegetables are naturally growing plants within sub-Saharan African ecosystems. For several centuries, these leafy vegetables have served as a source of food to vulnerable rural communities including those in Mpumalanga Province in South Africa. Indigenous leafy vegetables are a good source of nutrients including carbohydrates, proteins, essential vitamins, dietary fibre, trace elements, non-nutritious phytochemicals or their alternatives. The consumption of these vegetable is reported to possess health benefits including antibacterial, antivirus, anti-diabetic, activating the immune system, preventing risk of carcinogens, source of antioxidants as well as preventing apoptosis among others. The present review aimed at evaluating the current state of indigenous leafy vegetables in Mpumalanga Province by summarizing comprehensively their phytochemicals and postharvest studies. Nine indigenous leafy vegetables are currently cultivated in Mpumalanga with numerous nutritional and health benefits. However, more knowledge and scientific data is needed for these vegetables to be included in the dietary diversification programmes to combat poverty and food security.

Transition of post-disaster housing of rural households: A case study of the 2015 Gorkha earthquake in Nepal

To achieve post-disaster recovery of rural households in developing countries, it is necessary to understand the recovery conditions and the factors that play significant roles in the decision-making process. We aimed (1) to explain the transition of the residential status (i.e., type of places or houses in which affected households stay) after the disaster event and (2) to reveal the factors affecting the housing decisions. We interviewed 124 rural households in Nepal affected by the 2015 Gorkha earthquake to understand the residential status transition up to two and a half years after the earthquake. As a result, more than 50 transition patterns were observed. Social relations in the community were important immediately after the earthquake, followed by the physical resources and subjective factors. Financial resources became influential at a later stage of recovery. The number of households that repaired or rebuilt their houses boosted one year after the earthquake. However, the households who moved to unrepaired houses did not upgrade to repaired or rebuilt houses. This implies that the disparity in residential status among affected households had been determined even before they left the temporary houses and began the recovery process. Our results suggest that, for the prevention of recovery disparity, it is essential to support the recovery of individual households before the community starts the process, identifying their priorities and urgent needs and considering their circumstantial conditions. Thus, our study provides empirical data for effective recovery of vulnerable rural communities after disasters.

Caracterização da qualidade da água subterrânea utilizando índices de qualidade da água em Riachão do Jacuípe, Bahia

A água subterrânea representa uma crucial fonte para abastecimento de comunidades rurais nas regiões semiáridas. A escassez hídrica, relatada em diversos estudos prévios, exige que sejam conhecidas e divulgadas informações sobre a qualidade da água disponível, como uma das formas para melhor gerir e conservar as reservas existentes. O principal objetivo deste trabalho foi caraterizar as águas de poços profundos na região de Riachão do Jacuípe (BA), por meio de Índices de Qualidade de Água (IQA), com a finalidade de dispor, aos moradores, gestores e tomadores de decisão, um recurso para informar, de maneira simples, a qualidade da água fornecida à comunidade. A pesquisa também investigou os usos e tratamento dispensados à água, com o intuito de sugerir medidas para corrigir possíveis carências. Para esses propósitos foram utilizados resultados de análises de água fornecidos pela Secretaria do Meio Ambiente (BA) e entrevistas junto à comunidade. Esta pesquisa é uma contribuição importante para compreender a relação entre a qualidade da água e a situação de vulnerabilidade das comunidades rurais do semiárido. Os objetivos foram alcançados com o uso de três metodologias de cálculo de índices de qualidade de água (IQA): IQA CETESB, CCME WQI e e-IQUAS, aplicadas para doze amostras de água, para as quais foram avaliados vinte parâmetros. Os resultados mostraram convergência na caracterização estabelecida nas três metodologias, todas as amostras foram classificadas como “ruins”. A aplicação de índices se mostrou adequada, todavia tais mecanismos devem ser associados a outros recursos de avaliação. Quanto ao senso dos usuários, os resultados sugerem que os moradores precisam conhecer melhor a relação entre a qualidade da água com possíveis riscos para a saúde. A disseminação dos Índices de qualidade de água pode ser um mecanismo eficaz, oportunizando a população, gestores e decisores determinarem ações para mitigar as carências percebidas.

Prevalence and factors associated with intestinal parasitic infection among under-five children in and around Haro Dumal Town, Bale Zone, Ethiopia

BackgroundIntestinal parasitic infection is diversified illness and diseases caused millions morbidity among under-five children lives in developing countries particularly vulnerable rural communities. Deworming coverage in such community is low. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence and associated risk factors of intestinal parasitic infections (IPIs) among under-five children live in and around Haro Dumal Town.MethodsCommunity-based cross-sectional study was conducted in 561 randomly selected under-five children from June to August, 2018. The stool samples were collected and examined by basic parasitological techniques. Data related to socio-demographic and risk factors were collected using a self administered questionnaire. Statistical data analysis was done using SPSS version 21 and the bivariate and multivariate logistic regression used to compute the association between variables. P-value of < 0.05 was statistical significance.The resultsOf the 561 total under-five children, 216 (38.5%) were found to be infected with intestinal parasites. E.histolytica/dispar (15.3%) was the most prevalent parasite, followed by hook worm (14.4%) and T.trichuria (13.9%). Regarding risk factors, geo-phage [(AOR = 4.7; 95%CI: 2.0–10.4), P < 0.001], tungiasis [(AOR = 3.1; 95%CI: 1.1–6.6), P < 0.001], eating raw vegetable [(AOR = 1.3; 95%CI: 1.4–3.3), P < 0.001] were significantly associated with intestinal parasitic infections.ConclusionIntestinal parasitic infections (IPIs) were found to be highly prevalent in the study area. Hence, improving sanitation, controlling ecto-parasite such as tungiasis, provision of safe water and successful mass-deworming are important.

Residential energy transition and thermal efficiency in an arid environment of northeast Patagonia, Argentina

We have studied changes in energy use and practices due to a program which partially replaced firewood by fossil fuels. The program has been running for nearly five years in rural dwellings in Patagonia Argentina, where limited provision of fuelwood and social vulnerability are found. As a case study we focused on the community of Laguna Blanca, Province of Río Negro, located in the Patagonian steppe. Dwellings are one-family houses which were built with no energy efficiency measures, exposing reinforced concrete structures, fired-clay bricks, metal roofs and single-glass windows to severe weather. Since 2014, a government program fully subsidized the refilling of Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) to vulnerable rural communities, which were provided with a 200-kg gas tank and a gas heater in each household. An expected decrease in the use of fuelwood was observed, along with a very high consumption of LPG (around 650 kWh/m2 year), which can be for the first time assessed due to the known amount of LPG provided. The lack of energy efficiency policies led to very high operational costs and environmental impacts. Based on the dwellings' characteristics, we have also found that the LPG subsidies saved in 2.2 years would return the investment for a thermal insulation that would reduce 50% the gas consumption and substantially improve comfort.

Barriers and opportunities to bioenergy transitions: An integrated, multi-level perspective analysis of biogas uptake in Bali

Renewable energy is expected to gain a larger share in the Indonesian energy mix by 2025. Biogas has not only the potential to contribute significantly to the country's renewable energy targets by mid-century, but also to provide a series of co-benefits to improve wellbeing of vulnerable rural communities. The challenge is to find pathways for biogas to overcome well-established technologies and practices in the current heavily fossil fuel based energy system. This paper focused on household-level biogas development in Bali, Indonesia, critically analysing four domestic biogas programmes that are currently under implementation. For our analysis, we adopted an integrated approach combining the multi-level perspective framework with a system-mapping exercise. Moreover, a series of semi-structured interviews as well as an interactive workshop was conducted which allowed us to place multiple stakeholder perspectives and experiences at the heart of the analysis to look at factors beyond the micro-system of the technology, and understand the broader socio-institutional context. Our analysis of enabling and hindering factors to biogas expansion identified opportunities for improving the design and implementation of policy, finance and technology measures. These findings are relevant not only for the Indonesian context, but also for other developing countries that are increasingly investing in transitioning to low-carbon energy futures.

Gendered and generational tensions in increased land commercialisation: Rural livelihood diversification, changing land use, and food security in Ghana's Brong‐Ahafo region

Many smallholder farmers in Jaman North District, Brong‐Ahafo Region, Ghana are shifting from food crop production to increased cultivation of cashew, an export cash crop. This paper examines gendered and generational tensions in increased commercialisation of land, livelihood diversification, and household food security in the context of globalisation and environmental change. Using qualitative, participatory research with 60 middle‐generation men and women, young people and key stakeholders, the research found that community members valued the additional income stream. Young people and women, however, were apprehensive about the long‐term consequences for food security of allocating so much land to cashew plantations. Young, middle, and older generations were concerned about their weak bargaining position in negotiating fair prices with export companies and intermediaries. Greater integration into the global economy exposed rural actors to multiple risks and inequalities, such as the uneven effects of economic globalisation, rises in food prices, hunger and food insecurity, growing competition for land, youth outmigration and climate change. The shift towards cashew cultivation appears to be exacerbating gender and generational inequalities in access to land and food insecurity and leading to exploitation within the global agri‐food supply chain among already vulnerable rural communities in the global South. With stronger farmer associations and cooperatives, however, cashew farmers stand the chance of benefitting from greater integration into the global economy, through strengthened bargaining positions. Greater understanding is needed about the complex interactions between sustainable food systems, changing land use and gender and generational inequalities in rural spaces.

Importance of fairness in humanitarian relief distribution

This article is inspired by some of the challenges faced by non-governmental organizations in the distribution of humanitarian relief to vulnerable rural communities. A major concern of these organizations is to warrant that relief is distributed in an impartial and transparent way, which gives rise to the notion of fairness. This article thus discusses the importance of fairness in relief distribution and how it can be defined, especially in a context where delivery of vital items must be ensured periodically. We also propose some performance indicators to measure fairness, which can be useful to organizations that are held accountable for the impartiality of their decisions. Finally, an empirical study of an academic case, inspired by a rural aid distribution problem, is used to analyse how different mathematical formulations may contribute in helping crisis managers integrate fairness or equity in their decisions.

Ensuring Access to Quality Health Care in Vulnerable Communities.

For millions of Americans living in vulnerable rural and urban communities, their hospital is an important, and often their only, source of health care. As transformation in the hospital and health care field continues, some communities may be at risk of losing access to health care services and the opportunities and resources they need to improve and maintain their health. Integrated, comprehensive strategies to reform health care delivery and payment, within which vulnerable communities can make individual choices based on their needs, support structures, and preferences, are needed.In this Invited Commentary, the authors outline characteristics and parameters of vulnerable communities as well as the essential health care services that hospitals should strive to maintain locally identified by the American Hospital Association Task Force on Ensuring Access in Vulnerable Communities. They also describe four of nine emerging strategies—recommended by the task force—to reform health care delivery and payment and allow hospitals to provide the essential health care services, along with implementation barriers and how to address them. While this Invited Commentary focuses on vulnerable communities, the four highlighted strategies (addressing the social determinants of health, adopting new and innovative virtual care strategies, designing global budgets, and using inpatient/outpatient transformation strategy), as well as the other five strategies, may have broader applicability for all communities.

The political ecology of stakeholder-driven climate change adaptation: Case study from Ntalale ward, Gwanda district, in Zimbabwe.

Vulnerable rural communities face climate change-related shifts in rainfall patterns, particularly droughts and floods. The study investigated how Ntalale ward households in Gwanda district of Zimbabwe interpret climate change and adapt to its stressors in the context of the Zimbabwean political economy. Focus group discussions and interviews collected qualitative data. The community has experienced the following climate change-related risks: droughts, floods, heatwave and intra-seasonal rainfall variability. Droughts were reported to be occurring more frequent in the past 25 years as compared to the period before 1991. Ntalale area experienced floods in the 2002–2003 rainy season only. Respondents generally perceived that the rainy season had changed in the past 5 years, with the season now beginning in December and ending in March. The households have resorted to shifting cultivation practices, replanting, use of wetlands in preference to upland fields, changing of seed varieties or crops, selling of livestock and informal trading as coping strategies. Although non-governmental organisations have assisted the community to set up irrigation schemes, a few selected community members have benefited from the initiative. The Ntalale community has experienced four climate change-related risks and institutions have assisted the community. It is recommended that cooperation between households and institutions is key in developing stakeholder-driven adaptation strategies.

A study on disaster management practices for vulnerable rural communities in Bangladesh

The current disaster knowledge and practices of disaster affected rural people in Bangladesh were investigated. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected using structured questionnaire from 216 rural households. About 83% of the respondents perceived knowledge that brings about an increase in household income followed by learning new skills that contribute to reduction in disaster vulnerabilities (75%) and knowledge that helps in the decision making process (67%). A total of 91% of respondents, irrespective of literacy, are practicing tacit or oral knowledge sharing in their day to day lives. The sample respondents acquired disaster knowledge from different sources, including neighbors and relatives (82%), social workers (50%), mass media (45%), religious institutions (38%) and the village markets (32%). For those that received their knowledge from the village market, the information is mainly gathered by the literate people (37%) as opposed to those that are illiterate (26%). In updating acquired knowledge, 76% respondents validated through self observations and 58% by consultation and communication with family members or neighbors. Interestingly, more than 74% respondents reported that an inadequate financial resource is an important barrier to gaining improved knowledge on disaster management in rural areas. About 69% of the respondents stated that the early warning messages provided by various agencies are ‘very useful’, whereas 23% believed them to be ‘useful’ and 8% as ‘partially useful’. Posters, booklets and leaflets were identified as the most available and important disaster knowledge materials (82%). The study results suggested that the establishment of the rural information and knowledge centre and an easily understandable forecasting system would be very useful to improve the disaster knowledge for the rural poor.Bangladesh J. Sci. Res. 30(1&amp;2): 55-67, December-2017

Participatory action research: working beyond disaster toward prevention

Drawing on qualitative analyses of post-disaster effects on vulnerable rural communities in Pakistan, this paper puts forward a participatory action research stance as a next step or approach toward prevention. This approach stands in contrast to the current post-disaster relief model commonly practiced by many non-government organizations (NGOs). The participatory action research perspective was used to examine the qualitative evidence and provide a framework to effectively work with rural vulnerable communities. Qualitative analyses documented community wisdom and ideas toward prevention which, when potentially partnered with resources offered by NGOs, could dramatically reduce their vulnerability to natural disasters.

Fish farming as an innovative strategy for promoting food security in drought risk regions of Zimbabwe.

This article examines the implementation of fish farming as an innovative and economic strategy for promoting food security and dietary diversities among vulnerable households in drought risk areas of Zimbabwe. The declining climatic conditions and lack of economic opportunities in Mwenezi district of Zimbabwe attracted the attention of three non-governmental organisations (NGOs) to implement fish farming as an innovative mechanism to stimulate food security and generate employment in the district. The article used a qualitative research approach that includes semi-structured interviews and secondary data. The purposive sampling technique was adopted to interview participants in Mwenezi district who were involved in fish farming to assess and explore the experiences and benefits they derive from such development projects. Results for the article revealed that fish farming was well embraced by local communities as it led to improvements in food security, household income and employment regeneration. The local government including traditional leadership (Chiefs and Headmen’s) supported the NGO activities as they benefited local communities. The article concludes that although fish farming was instrumental in regenerating employment, some participants still fail to participate because of laziness and desire to maintain dependency syndrome. The article recommends the NGOs to launch awareness campaigns in rural communities and increase networking with the donor community which is fundamental in attracting sustainable funding. The government can also promote fish farming in vulnerable rural communities by providing funding and capacity building programmes.

STUDI KOMPARATIF TAHAPAN PERENCANAAN PEMBANGUNAN PERDESAAN DI INDONESIA DAN MALAYSIA (Studi Kasus: Desa Alamendah, Kabupaten Bandung-Indonesia dan Desa Peruas, Pahang-Malaysia)

The growth of urban areas very rapidly raises significant issues that take effect in the development of rural areas. The strategic issues of rural development in Indonesia and Malaysia are poverty, unemployment, and economic vulnerability of rural communities; limited availability of public services and the minimum basic service, low empowerment of rural communities, not optimal village governance and institutional role of the village in the planning and development of the village, not optimal spatial arrangement of rural areas, natural resource management and environmental environment, the limited availability of infrastructure in the open isolation of rural areas and encourage linkages Rural- Urban. This study is intended to determine how the rural development planning process in Indonesia dan Malaysia. This study used qualitative research methods with a qualitative descriptive design format to describe the condition of the various phenomena that exist in the community that the object of research, and pull it to the surface of reality as a feature, character, nature, model or description of the condition or phenomenon particular. Data was collected through structured and in-depth interviews, and studies in the literature that focused on the exploration of related literature. Data analysis is done by using the method of triangulation and interpretative. Triangulation method rests on the validity of the findings and the level of confidence. Data analysis is inductive, meaning is the result of research rather than generalizations. Stages of Rural Development Planning in Indonesia and Malaysia are basically not much different, the two countries each have the characteristics and traits of its own in the formulation of rural development planning in the country. Based on the Minister Regulation Number 114 of 2014 on Guidelines for Rural Development, Indonesia defines the planning of rural development in the form of Mid Term Development Plan Rural (Rural Development Plan). Malaysia defines the rural development plan according to Act 172 About Design City and Village act 1976 in the form Slowly Rural (PTD). The results of this research can be used as a model for the analysis of policy makers both at the central and regional governments.

What drives the vulnerability of rural communities to climate variability? Consensus and diverging views in the Congo Basin

The vulnerability of rural communities to climate variability and change in developing countries is widely recognized. However, the question of what factors drive their vulnerability remains subject to different interpretations. This study explored the perceptions of local key informants on the factors influencing the vulnerability of forest communities to droughts and excessive rains in five contrasting socio-ecological zones of the Congo Basin forest. Results from the local level were discussed by national stakeholders. The analysis showed that people agreed on the positive effect of most community assets (physical, natural, human, social and financial) on vulnerability reduction. Diverging views arose with regard to the effects of population density and institutions on vulnerability, as well as to whether the dependence of communities on forest products increased vulnerability. The perceptions of local respondents depended on local contexts and the roles of the respondents in communities. The divergent interpretations revealed in this study underline the challenges faced by adaptation policy-makers and project developers in reconciling the opposing views of multiple stakeholders. National adaptation plans should identify broad priorities that must be converted into specific adaptation plans at the local level.