Voluntary Immigrants Research Articles

The deportation of greek settlers to siberia in the 17th century: routes and destinies

This article is devoted to the exile of Greeks to Siberia during the first half of the 17th century. Siberia’s colonisation by voluntary immigrants and exiles gave rise to a complex ethno-cultural environment characterised by a mixture of cultures and traditions. It may seem surprising that Greek immigrants lived in such a severe climate, but a colony was formed in Tomsk in the 17th century: it consisted of exiles sent from Moscow to Siberia for various crimes. Exiles would often have unusual fates, which is illustrated here by four biographies. Two exiles (Stepan Aleksandrov and Nikolay Petrov son Skularikov) were false monks who had come to Moscow to collect donations: they then practised alchemy with the help of a magic crystal in an attempt to make gold. The other two came from Trebizond and might have been related. Yuri Trapezundsky had served as an Algerian corsair and as a Dutch and English soldier. In Moscow, he rose through the ranks to become a captain in the Inozemsky Prikaz (Office for the Affairs of Foreigners). Manuil Konstantinov had been taken from his homeland by Don Cossacks during a raid and then sold to a German goldsmith in Russia. The fact that he was an Orthodox Christian helped him regain his freedom. During the Smolensk War (1632–1634), these two Greeks found themselves behind enemy lines and provided the Polish commanders with important information about the state of the Russian troops. Managing to leave Poland, they decided to return to Russia to serve in the Inozemsky Prikaz. During a major conflict in the Greek community a decade later, Yuri Trapezundsky and Manuil Konstantinov were denounced. They were charged with treason and exiled to Siberia. In Tomsk, they met Stepan Aleksandrov and together participated in numerous activities, such as uprisings, the exploration of new lands, and the construction of jails. They also helped subject indigenous Siberian peoples to Russian rule.

Luck Egalitarianism and the Rights of Immigrants

AbstractThis article considers the implications of luck egalitarianism for a range of issues relating to international, South‐North migration. More specifically, the implications of luck egalitarianism for the question of whether receiving societies are justified in extending to immigrants a less comprehensive set of rights than that enjoyed by other members of society are considered. First, are voluntary migrants responsible for their migration in such a way that receiving societies are justified in extending to them a less comprehensive set of rights than if, say, they had been involuntary migrants, or citizens of the destination country? Since luck egalitarianism aims to redistribute only for inequalities for which individuals are not responsible, there is an issue of whether it will hold individuals responsible for their choice of migration in such a way that it may justify asymmetrical sets of rights between voluntary immigrants and other members of society. Second, it may be possible to allow access for a larger number of disadvantaged migrants if they are granted access to a less extensive package of rights when they reach the destination country than if they were granted access to a more extensive such package. If so, may not the less extensive package of rights turn out to have a greater positive impact on global equality? Both these arguments are critically discussed and it is concluded that neither justifies extending to immigrants a less comprehensive set of rights.

The Culture of Exile and Narratives of Resistance: A Study of Munif’s Cities of Salt and Naipaul’s the Middle Passage

<p>Fictional texts still remain a forceful medium in understanding the turbulent global culture at the end of the millennium. The language of literature is greatly affected by the struggle between two mutually opposed forces: the oppressor and the resisting power of the oppressed. The oppressed and the exploited of the earth maintain their defiance: liberty, through resistance. The biggest weapon against this defiance is to annihilate their belief in their past, roots, culture, or even their names and ultimately in themselves. It makes them want to identify with that which is remote; for example other people’s language. Ideas are implanted that any possibility of success or triumph is a remote ridiculous dream. This in turn creates a collective despair and a wasteland where the oppressor presents himself as the cure.</p><p>Remembering, looking back in anger or even imagining are all acts of resistance and of lending coherence and integrity to a history and a homeland interrupted, divided or compromised by instances of loss. Redressing forcibly forgotten experiences, allows the silences of history to come into word, and makes us imagine alternative scripts of the past, hence invariably changes our understanding of the present.</p><p>The present paper aims at investigating narratives that recuperate losses incurred in migration, exile and dislocation. Forced or voluntary immigration is discussed as part and parcel in the narratives that originate at border crossings and that cannot be bound by national borders, languages or traditions through Naipaul’s <em>The Middle Passage</em>, and Munif’s <em>Cities of Salt</em>, where the chaotic dynamics of a world constantly on the move creates resistance and possibly confrontations, mirroring the fragmented consciousness of postmodern culture elucidated by HomiBhabha and Frantz Fanon.</p>

The faith community and mental health resilience amongst Australian Ismaili Muslim youth

ABSTRACTThe religio-cultural community of minority ethnic migrants can strongly affect post-migration adaptation. Whilst religion itself may influence resilience, the social support network it provides may also play a role. Extant literature on resilience and migrant communities has largely focused on refugees whilst the experience of younger voluntary migrants and second-generation immigrants, who may experience “acculturative stress”, has been overlooked. This study examines 18–25 year old diasporic and post-diasporic Ismaili Muslim youth in Australia. Of the 11 youth respondents, five were Australian-born/raised (“post-diasporic”) and six were recent immigrants (“diasporic”). Five community leaders were also interviewed for triangulation. Respondents were obtained using purposive and convenience sampling in two Australian cities. Results demonstrate how faith engagement and civic participation were utilised in developing resilience when facing mental health stressors encountered during the migratory and acculturative processes.

Cause Analysis to Farmers’ No Removal from Immigrant of Voluntary Poverty Alleviation of in Shanxi Province and Policy Recommendations

In the implementation of the voluntary poverty alleviation migration policy, some rich villagers have moved but some still live in the original place. This phenomenon is a universal social problem, and those farmers still maintain the original living standards and even lower than those be-fore the implementation of voluntary poverty alleviation immigration policy. The article takes a poverty-stricken country in Shanxi Province as a case to find out the reasons for the left-behind farmers, to explore the accurate poverty alleviation in the voluntary poverty alleviation in Shanxi Province, and to put forward the corresponding suggestions.

Watchful Citizens

To refine wholesale accounts of transnationalism, scholars have cited the amplification of border enforcement and immigration control. Whilst received analysis emphasizes multiple processes whether border militarization, mass deportation or the cross-deputization of local authorities, other trends remain unexplored. Employing the insights of scholarship on the diffusion and decentralization of policing and crime control, this work interrogates the enlistment of private individuals in official gatekeeping efforts. Drawing on relevant empirical examples – anonymous tip lines, voluntary immigration posses, border vigilantes, local anti-immigrant ordinances and other practices that compel, encourage and include societal participation – it assesses three modalities of citizen involvement: deputization, responsibilization and autonomization. Each displays distinct state–society relations and techniques for mobilizing societal actors and energies. In addition to illuminating the complexities, consequences and contradictions of contemporary immigration control, this article enriches understandings of social exclusion and the redistribution and transposition of government amidst neoliberal restructuring.

An Exploratory Quantitative Study Comparing and Correlating Parental Factors with Environmental Science Achievement for Black American and Black Caribbean Students in a Mid-Atlantic State

IntroductionThe large influx of Caribbean islanders to the U.S. during the last three decades and the complexities of the heterogeneous Black population within America present significant opportunities for research on patterns of migration, cultural differences in the home and parenting, and the influence of each of these variables on students' academic achievement (Homer, 2001; Mitchell, 2005; Ogbu, 2003; Portes, 1999; Rong & Brown, 2001 ^Consequently, there is a growing need for the education and sociology of education literature to address the educational conditions and attainment of Black immigrant children and to become aware of the differences and complexities within their homes (Rong & Brown, 2007). There are very few researchers who are conducting empirical research on Black immigrant students' home life and parenting and examining the influence on these students' academic achievement (Codjoe, 2007; Fisher, 2005). Therefore, this study sought to correct the shortcoming by exploring the influence of home background patterns and parenting on the environmental achievement of Afro-Caribbean and African American students. The family or parental factors used in previous studies of Afro-Caribbean or African American students were also used in the current research (Codjoe, 2007; Fisher, 2005; Heard, 2007).Additionally, out-of-school activities and attitudinal factors associated with parenting were included in this study under parental factors because of the theoretical belief that parents' values, attitudes, and priorities may greatly influence the values, attitudes, and priorities of their children (Ogbu, 2003; Ogbu & Simons, 1998; Samuel, Smolska, & Warren, 2001; Wang, 2004). Therefore, out-of-school activities examined in this study included extra lessons, and extra study time in science, and attitudinal factors included motivation to do and science attitudes. For the purpose of this study, students' and parents' ethnicities or countries of origin data were collected along with the other family background data. Students were labeled African Americans, if it was reported on the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Program for International Student Assessment (OECD PISA, Beavis, 2002) student background questionnaire that they and their (both) parents were bom in the U.S.; whereas, students were labeled Afro-Caribbean, if it was reported on their questionnaire that they or one of their parents were bom in the Caribbean. In this study, Erstand second-generation Caribbean immigrant students were labeled as Afro-Caribbean. In following the guidelines of Ogbu's (2003) previous research, the African Americans in this study were also called involuntary immigrants because their forefathers were brought to America between 1619 and 1800 by force during the slave trade, and the Afro-Caribbean group was called voluntary immigrants because their migration to America was seen as the pursuit of opportunities and not one of force.Furthermore, four research questions were addressed in this study to answer the central thesis: (a) are there differences in environmental achievement between Black Caribbean and Black American high school students?; (b) are there correlations between parental factors and the environmental achievement test score for Black Caribbean and Black American students?; (c) which parental factor best predicts environmental achievement or performance for Black Caribbean and Black American students?; and, (d) what do emerged field data further reveal about the Black Caribbean and Black American students' home patterns and achievement?Literature ReviewHistorical Context of Afro-Caribbeans and African Americans in AmericaAccording to Rong and Brown (2007), the Black presence in North America has a history of more than 400 years, and from the outset this population has been heterogeneous. …

Through the Looking-Glass: Exploring Identity Development for a Beginning Therapist and her Late Adolescent Patient

This article summarizes an adolescent psychotherapy case with a beginning doctoral level therapist in an urban community setting. The author reviews the course of treatment with particular attention to clinical issues related to developmental changes for both the patient and this beginning therapist. Vignettes are used to illustrate the patient's conflicts and to explore therapist “mistakes” that led to inevitable frustrations with, and eventual breakthroughs in, the work done by the pair. These include, but are not limited to, tracking authenticity as a mode of object-relatedness, complementary and concordant identifications that help to illuminate transference and countertransference themes, multidetermined impacts of voluntary versus involuntary immigration on identity development, therapist reveries as an aspect of the therapeutic communication worthy of contemplation and future exploration, and direct uses of reverie experiences in supervision as representative of the content co-created in the patient-therapist dyad.

Women Seeking Political Asylum: Negotiating Authority, Gender and a Lost Home

This article examines the multiple intersecting challenges faced by women who are survivors of politically motivated violence and are seeking political asylum in the United States. These women have a particular vulnerability to authority, face the forced telling (and unwanted revisiting) of a trauma narrative, have an ambivalent relationship with notions of home and homeland, face numerous gender related challenges, and struggle with significant post-traumatic sequelae. This paper addresses these dynamic issues and contrasts the experience of these women with that of so-called voluntary immigrants. These and other issues are explored with brief case examples, with clinical recommendations for working with this population.

Failure is not an Option: Parental Expectations of Nigerian Voluntary Immigrants to the United States

The purpose of this study was to explore the socio-cultural and educational contexts of parental expectations of Nigerian voluntary immigrants to the United States. Immigrant or voluntary minorities are people who have migrated essentially of their own volition to the United States, or any other nation, because they seek more economic mobility, or a better life in general, and/or political freedom (Ogbu, 1995). This case study sought an explanation for the success in education attributed to these new African immigrants and their children. This study investigated the relationship among three factors: (a) parental expectations, (b) socio-cultural experiences, and (c) (adult) children’s internalization of their parent’s aspirations for them. The method of inquiry included phenomenological analysis on data collected through participants’ topical life-histories (Giorgio, 1985). The results of the study represent the Nigerian immigrants’ worldviews: a folk theory shared by their cultural and life experiences. The common threads running throughout their responses are ‘education is the number one priority,’ ‘hard work,’ ‘effort begets luck,’ and ‘failure is not an option.’ Nigerian culture had a strong influence on the upbringing and fulfillment of expectations for the children of the participants.

Voluntary and involuntary immigrants and adolescents’ endorsement of multiculturalism

Abstract This research examined whether the way in which migrants are defined has implications for majority group adolescents’ evaluation of maintenance of the heritage culture. Using an experimental questionnaire design, the findings demonstrate that when migrants are considered to have left their country on a voluntary basis, endorsement of cultural maintenance is lower than when migration is perceived to be involuntary. This was found to be the case when voluntary immigrants were contrasted with immigrants that have been recruited as labor migrants by the host society (Study 1, N = 843), and when voluntary immigrants were contrasted with immigrants that are forced to leave their country of origin (Study 2, N = 108). Furthermore, Study 2 found similar effects for emigrants. In both studies, national identification was negatively related to support for cultural maintenance. In addition, higher identifiers were more strongly in favor of allowing involuntary emigrants to maintain their own culture than lower identifiers. The implications of this research are discussed.

The effects of revisionism on remembered emotion: the valence of older, voluntary immigrants' pre‐migration autobiographical memories

AbstractPrior research on remembered emotion demonstrates effects of revisionism in memory. The positivity bias describes preferential recall for positive emotions and the fading affect bias describes greater fading of negative versus positive emotion over time. Such effects predict that older adults would remember childhood and youth more positively than later adulthood. However, economic immigrants, whose childhood and youth reflect experiences of poverty and unemployment, may not show the effects of such revisionism. This study examined the remembered emotion of immigrant and non‐immigrant older Puerto Ricans whose early years corresponded to hard times on the island. Multilevel modelling showed that both groups exhibited the effects of the positivity and fading affect biases, but immigrants remembered childhood and youth more negatively than non‐immigrants. This suggests both accurate memory for a more negative past as well the effects of additional revisionism whereby a valued and chosen present is preferentially compared to the past. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

National Minorities and Ethnic Immigrants: Liberalism’s Political Sociology

This article offers a sustained critique of Will Kymlicka's argument in MULTICULTURAL CITIZENSHIP that a liberal theory of minority ought to differentiate between two categories of ethnocultural groups, national minorities and ethnic immigrants, in terms of the that they should be accorded. National minorities are previously self-governing peoples who have been incorporated into states in which they do not constitute the majority group, either voluntarily (through treaties of cession or federation) or involuntarily (through conquest). Ethnic immigrants are cultural groups who have migrated to societies where they do not constitute a majority through voluntary immigration. According to Kymlicka, national minorities ought to possess self-government rights that enable them to erect separate institutions, and which may take the form of federal arrangements. Ethnic immigrants, by contrast, are entitled to polyethnic rights that facilitate their membership in common institutions, and include guarantees of non-discrimination and even exemptions from laws that disadvantage ethnic immigrants because of culturally specific practices. Kymlicka runs two different lines of argument to defend this taxonomy of ethnic groups and rights, which I term the argument from consent, and the argument from political sociology. In this article, I describe both arguments, and explain why neither can justify the hierarchical distinction that he draws between different ethnocultural groups. I also suggest that the shortcomings in both arguments suggest the limited work that cultural membership can do in a liberal theory of justice.

Effects of voluntary immigration on the distribution of autobiographical memory over the lifespan

AbstractImmigration may be considered a ‘traumatic’ event with acute phases followed by long latency effects. Ten older, Hispanic adults who immigrated to the USA at ages 20–22, 24–28, and 34–35 narrated their ‘life‐stories’ on two occasions, once in English and once in Spanish. Instead of the usual reminiscence bump they showed an increase in autobiographical recalls corresponding specifically to their ages at immigration. Each of the narrated life stories was independently coded for amount of detail, emotional valence, status as transitional event, and backward/forward search strategy. Memories for the time of immigration did not differ from other memories on any of these ratings. Increased recall for the period of immigration may be due to the encoding of novel events and the ‘effort after meaning’ required to integrate these events followed by a relatively stable period (settlement) marked by release from proactive interference and spaced rehearsal. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Immigrants in America: Who are they, and why do they Come?

The concept of diversity in education has received much attention in social science and adult education literature. Focusing primarialy on race, class, gender, and sexual orientation and how these contexts impact teaching and learning, little attention has been paid to cultural and linguistic differences as a result of migration and how they influence learning among foreign born students. Adult educators need to give more attention to the concept of immigration as a context for learning in adulthood. During the colonial era, most of America's immigrants came from Great Britain and Ireland, with a few from Germany, France, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg (U.S. Bureau of the Census Report, 1993). The Chinese, faced with famine in their homeland, began to migrate to America between 1850 and 1882. Upon arrival, they found work in mining camps and expanding railroad construction. However, the American labor force protested the low wages the Chinese accepted and forced Congress to pass the Chinese Exclusion Act, which prohibited Chinese immigration until 1965. It is important to note that the Chinese migration was among the first voluntary immigration to the U.S. among today's minorities. It is no surprise, then, that this Act was among the first significant evidence of xenophobia directed against America's foreign born. While immigration from China remained prohibited, European immigration continued in full force. For 20 years following the Civil War, Canadians arrived in large numbers. Italians began arriving in significant numbers in 1890, and from 1900 until the start of the World War I, about a quarter of all immigrants were Italians (U.S. Bureau of the Census Report, 1993). The Germans began arriving in large numbers after World War II, while the 1970s saw an increase in the number of immigrant people from Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Who are Today's Immigrants? According to Schmidley in March 2002 the estimated foreign-born population of the United States was 32.5 million, representing 11.4% of the population. This number is an increase of 13.5 million, or 47% over the 1990 census figures. This increase is primarily the result of immigration from Asia and Latin America (Camarota, 2002). In 2002, 52% of the immigrants originated from Latin America (including the Caribbean and South America) and 25% Asia (Schmidley, 2002). The Latin American countries with the highest representation of immigrants in the U.S. are Mexico, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and El Salvador. Asian countries with the highest immigrant rates include China, the Philippines, India, Vietnam, and Korea (Camarota, 2002). In contrast, only 14% of the foreign-born population come from Europe, a significant shift from the 62% recorded in 1970. Overall, according to current population reports (Camarota, November 2002; Schmidleg 2002), the largest wave of immigrants arrived between 1985 and 1990.75% of Salvadorian immigrants, along with more than half of the immigrants from Korea, Vietnam, and China, and nearly half of the Mexican and Filipino immigrants arrived during that period. As a result, the racial and ethnic composition of the foreign-born population has shifted to more than 75% minority Many immigrants speak a language other than English in the home including 95% of Asians, 80% of Italians, and 58% of Germans. This reflects a polarized pattern of demographics with the most educated and wealthiest as well as the least educated and poorest (Martin & Midgley, 1994). This polarization in the composition of the immigrant population suggests that planners of adult education programs face a challenging task as they attempt to meet the variety, of needs and expectations that immigrant Americans bring to the new country Why Do Immigrants Come to America? A variety of conditions compel migration from the homeland to a foreign country Most are pulled to the United States in search of a better standard of living. …

Blacks as ?Serviceable Other?

The American experience teaches us that integration is not just mere proximity, but an active process based on joint participation and mutual acceptance. It is only in the creation of a common superordinate structure shared with the majority that minority groups can aspire to be associated with the dominant culture. Ironically, America has become most successful in allowing various immigrant groups to become part of its mainstream by abandoning the idea of blind assimilation. This paper analyzes the integration of voluntary immigrants who, while maintaining their cultural distinctiveness, have come to share the American dream'. It is however in their social representations of Blacks, defined negatively as the other, that they have reduced their social distance to the dominant Anglo-culture and facilitated their inclusion. By reconstructing their own cultural distinctiveness, like other groups, in juxtapositin to America, some Blacks have transformed themselves into African Americans to achieve the same level of integration.

The Composition and Distribution of Ethnic Groups in Belize: Immigration and Emigration Patterns, 1980-1991

In the history of human migration, rarely has a situation arisen in which simultaneous voluntary immigration and emigration flows have dramatically transformed the ethnic composition of an independent country. Belize since its independence in 1981 provides an example of such an unusual combination of circumstances. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, anecdotal evidence began to accumulate suggesting that the country's population was undergoing profound structural changes that included realignment of its settlement patterns and alteration of its ethnic mix.

"The Insertion of the Self into the Space of Borderless Possibility": Eva Hoffman's Exiled Body

For the European, even today, America represents something akin to exile, phantasy of emigration and, therefore, form of interiorization of his or her own culture. - Jean Baudrillard, America Our present age is one of exile. - Julia Kristeva, New Type of Intellectual The demand to recognize an irreducible presence of the in literary history has brought about qualifications or the substitution of American with ethnic-specific adjectives, leading to distinctions between, for instance, African American, Indian, Asian American, Chicano, Hispanic, and Puerto Rican literature. Redefining Literary History, edited by A. La Vonne Brown Ruoff and Jerry W. Ward, Jr. (1990), may serve as typical example of recent critical anthologies of literature. And, although in the critical/theoretical debate on the meaning of ethnic, broad spectrum of positions could be mapped, in anthologies and histories of literature ethnics are almost never mentioned (The Heath Anthology of Literature, 1990, edited by Paul Lauter being an exception). From the perspective of European academic interested in literature, this predominant absence of the category of European literature is quite baffling. Even if the ideological motives behind this recoil from Eurocentrism may be understandable and even desirable, some of the unspoken assumptions behind it strike me as problematic. What bothers me most is the implied homogenization of Euro-American literature. I think that the assumptions informing this unitary perception of Euro-American literature need careful reexamination. In what follows, however, I will only very briefly outline few general and very tentative queries, hoping to open debate on the principles of present-day constructions of ethnic literature. My initial remarks on the problematic neglect of Central European literature will serve as pre-text for more detailed discussion of Eva Hoffman's Lost in Translation: A Life in New Language (1989). I will approach Hoffman's book as an example of postmodern autobiography written by Central European etrangere. What I would like to argue for is an insertion of what may (awkwardly) be called Central European literature in the Other canon of literature.(1) The first assumption encouraging homogenizing view on Euro-American literature seems to be the persistent myth of the so-called model of voluntary immigration, acculturation and assimilation that leads directly to if not quite painless absorption. From this vantage point, the melting pot is an apt metaphor in the case of Euro-Americans who, once acculturated, merge into the mainstream (read: oppressive) culture. And although the idea of the melting pot has been challenged since its very birth (the production of Israel Zangwill's play of that name in 1908), the concept seems to have reasserted its grip on the public awareness in recent years, as Rudolf Vecoli points out in his Return to the Melting Pot: Ethnicity in the United States in the Eighties.(2) The classic success tale often quoted as embodying this belief is of course Mary Antin's The Promised Land (1912). In criticism, Antin's narrative has been interpreted as a prime example of smooth, one-way assimilation. Her autobiography is singular celebration of her successful transformation from an Old World shtetl girl into New England Woman.(3) Few critics seem to have noticed the ambiguities and deep contradictions in Antin's autobiography; William A. Proefriedt's illuminating reading of The Promised Land is an exception rather than the rule.(4) It is indeed surprising that deconstruction-inspired suspicion of any seamless reading has not as yet led to radical re-examination of The Promised Land and of the straight line theory of assimilation. My feeling is that the deconstructive critical gaze has been averted from Antin's text because the writer is Caucasian immigrant. …

Voluntary Immigration and Continuing Encounters between Blacks: The Post-Quincentenary Challenge

The quincentenary of Columbus's 1492 visit to America provided opportunities for scholars to engage in critical observation and observance of the event. The visit began the unended stream of voluntary crossings to the hemisphere and especially the United States. Similar crossings by blacks have been downplayed in American history; they have been located within the context of the slave trade, imposed segregation, and restricted movement. Even though, after emancipation, increasing numbers of persons immigrated to the United States from countries with predominantly black or racially mixed populations, their presence was less visible due to their relatively small numbers and their resemblance to and close association with the more numerous native-born black people. Since 1965, liberal legislation has led to increasing entry and heightened visibility of black immigrants, especially in urban and industrial centers of the country. There they bring greater ethnic diversification to the U.S. black population. These developmens challenge sociology to begin to address a complex future with expanding bases of ethnic encounters and differentiation and new possibilities for inter- and intragroup relations.

Social Networking, Hardiness and Immigrant's Mental Health

Previous investigations of immigrant mental hospitalization rates have accumulated inconclusive evidence in regard to native-foreign differentials. We attempt to examine factors that protect voluntary immigrants from psychological impairment. Unlike existing studies, which tend to regard immigrants as merely reactive to stressful life changes accompanying immigration, we assume immigration can be used as a vehicle for personal advancement. We hypothesize that the immigrant's activism in cultivating social networks in the receiving society, and hardiness in the personality repertoire, are the chief means of ameliorating strain. Also examined are issues related to (/) the nature of social networks, (2) ties to the immigrant community and to the host society, and (3) how these ties influence adaptation.