Volume Change Behavior Research Articles

Volume Change and Cracks Behavior of Lime Treated Expansive Soils

This research work study the influence of cyclic wetting and drying on free swell potential of untreated and lime treated expansive clayey soils. Such a study is required to understand the behavior of these soils during wet-dry cycles. Two expansive soils (a polwhite bentonite and a kaolinite) with different plasticity indexes were used in this study. The soil samples were treated with different lime content in the order of (3, 5 and 7% by the dry weight of soil). The lime treated soil samples were cured at 20ºC for 28 and 180 days. The untreated and lime treated soil samples were subjected to four wet-dry cycles. Free swell potential and cracks propagation were studied during lime addition and wet-dry cycles. Results showed that, the free swell potential of untreated soil samples; in general; decreased with increasing wet-dry cycles, and all of the soil samples reached equilibrium after the second cycle. While the cracks propagation increased with these cycles, especially of bentonite soil samples. Larger cracks propagation has been observed in the bentonite soil samples. Lime addition enhanced the free swell potential values of the two expansive soils and there was a drastic decrease in free swelling potential and cracks propagation of these soils. The beneficial effect of lime treatment to control the swelling values was partly lost by the first wet–dry cycles, and the free swell potential increased at the subsequent cycles.

Volume Change and Cracks Behavior of Lime Treated Expansive Soils

This research work study the influence of cyclic wetting and drying on free swell potential of untreated and lime treated expansive clayey soils. Such a study is required to understand the behavior of these soils during wet-dry cycles. Two expansive soils (a polwhite bentonite and a kaolinite) with different plasticity indexes were used in this study. The soil samples were treated with different lime content in the order of (3, 5 and 7% by the dry weight of soil). The lime treated soil samples were cured at 20ºC for 28 and 180 days. The untreated and lime treated soil samples were subjected to four wet-dry cycles. Free swell potential and cracks propagation were studied during lime addition and wet-dry cycles. Results showed that, the free swell potential of untreated soil samples; in general; decreased with increasing wet-dry cycles, and all of the soil samples reached equilibrium after the second cycle. While the cracks propagation increased with these cycles, especially of bentonite soil samples. Larger cracks propagation has been observed in the bentonite soil samples. Lime addition enhanced the free swell potential values of  the two expansive soils and there was a drastic decrease in free swelling potential and cracks propagation of these soils. The beneficial effect of lime treatment to control the swelling values was partly lost by the first wet–dry cycles, and the free swell potential increased at the subsequent cycles.

Salinity effects on soil shrinkage characteristic curves of fine-grained geomaterials

Fine-grained clayey soils are prone to substantial volume changes during desiccation in response to the dynamics of their moisture regime, and are of critical importance in several geotechnical and geo- environmental engineering applications. As such, the complex interactions between the fraction of soil solids and the ionic pore fluid play a critical role in governing such volume changes, and have been the focus in studies dealing with marine geotechnology, mine-tailing ponds, engineered barrier systems, etc. With this in mind, the present investigation evaluates the volume changes and accompanying densification from a saturated slurry state to a constant volume state of a reference fine-grained geomaterial, kaolin, subjected to evaporative dewatering. For this purpose, several parametric studies involving determination of soil shrinkage characteristic curves (SSCCs) of kaolin under the influence of varied salt constituents and concentrations of pore fluid are performed. Furthermore, a critical assessment of SSCCs depicting progressive shrinkage and volume change behaviour of geomaterials is provided, followed by the analysis of experimentally obtained SSCCs of the kaolin to explore the impacts of pore fluid salinity. Moreover, the SSCCs are parameterised with a predictive model and the fitting parameters are used to quantitatively demonstrate the salinity-dependent volume change response of a representative fine-grained porous system.

Characterization of water retention, compressibility and swelling properties of a pellet/powder bentonite mixture

The water retention, compressibility and swelling properties of a pellet/powder bentonite mixture were investigated in the laboratory. The water retention capacity was determined under constant-volume condition using a specially designed cell allowing vapor exchange in all directions; suction controlled oedometer tests were carried out for the compressibility investigation; both constant-volume and swell-consolidation methods were applied for the swelling pressure determination. The vapor equilibrium technique was used for suction control. Comparable results were found for the water retention capacity of the pellet/powder mixture determined under constant-volume condition and one single pellet under free swelling condition for suctions higher than 4 MPa, suggesting that the suction was mainly controlled by the micro-pores inside the pellets/powder grains and the swelling of the clay particles was accommodated by the existing macro-pores. On the contrary, at lower suctions, the constant-volume conditions gave rise to a lower water retention capacity for the mixture, indicating the restricted clay particle swelling after the filling-up of the existing macro-pores. Oedometer compression curves revealed a different behavior for low and high suctions: at high suctions, the volume change behavior was governed by the pellets rearrangement combined with possible pellets crushing upon loading. By contrast, at low suctions, the mixture lost its initial granular structure during suction decrease; thus, the volume change behavior became similar to that of compacted bentonite. Compared to compacted bentonite, the pellet/powder mixture showed a lower yield stress. A lower value of swelling pressure was found with the constant-volume method, confirming the limitation of the swell-consolidation method in determining soil swelling pressure.

Evaluation of Ʋ-Lnp' Curves for the Stabilization of Saline Clayey Soils

Saline soils are one of the challengeable soils that can cause many problems in civil engineering designs. In this study, volume change behavior and stress path changes in the Ʋ-Lnp' space of these soils, and the effect of stabilization and reinforcement on them have been investigated. Case study of this research is Amirkabir Highway between Qom and Kashan. In 54th Km of this highway, road surface is distorted and it is observed that its soil is saline clay in field investigation; and considering surface flow of water in that place, it is induced that, probably, the presence of water causes such a condition. For this purpose, after sampling and conducting preliminary experiments such as particle size analysis, Atterberg limits and compaction, first of all, the soil of considered place was examined by swelling potential and consolidation tests. as a result, volume change behavior parameters of undisturbed and disturbed soils have been determined and it was specified that disturbed soil has a considerable swelling potential. Then swelling potential and consolidation tests have been conducted on stabilized samples with different amount and curing time of lime, epoxy – resin polymer and also reinforced samples with different amount of polypropylene fiber; moreover, their results for two cases of stabilized and non-stabilized samples have been compared. According to the results of the consolidation experiments and the potential for swelling, it is observed that the impaction strongly affects the volume behavior and the soil stress path. The comparison among swelling parameters (free swelling and swelling pressure) of stabilized samples with polymer and lime and reinforced samples with polypropylene fiber showed that all of these materials reduce free swelling, but for the case of swelling pressure, with 9 % of polymer swelling pressure increases and for other cases this pressure decreases, that this issue is one of disadvantages of polymer stabilization. The results obtained from the consolidation test indicate that the slope of the normal consolidation line λ and the swell line slope κ in the stabilized samples are smaller than the unstabilized samples.

Characterisation of jarofix for use in geotechnical projects

A detailed laboratory study was carried out to evaluate the physical, chemical and geotechnical characteristics of jarofix (a waste material generated by the zinc industry) before assessing its applicability for embankment construction. Mineralogical and morphological properties, shape, crystallinity and the concentration of inorganic and heavy metals were evaluated. The stress–displacement behaviour of jarofix was studied by conducting a series of direct shear tests at different normal stresses and dry densities. The parameters studied were the shear stress, shear stress ratio, horizontal and vertical displacements, peak and critical friction angles and dilation. These parameters were compared with those of other suitable embankment materials. It was found that jarofix has a polycrystalline structure with cuboidal particles and a non-hazardous nature. The peak shear stress values at higher density were significantly higher than those at lower density. The stress–strain and volume-change behaviour of the jarofix was found to be similar to those of silty soil, fly ash, sandy soil and dense sand. It is concluded that jarofix can be utilised as an alternative embankment material for sustainable road construction.

A Critical State Constitutive Model for the Isotropic Thermal Compression of Structured Sand–Bentonite Buffers

The sand–bentonite mixture is used as the buffer layer in nuclear waste disposals. The buffer layer, as a non-permeable protective layer, is generally exposed to temperature gradients and the long-term subjection to temperature results in creep and more intact structure for the layer. In the present study, thermally induced structure and its effects on the isotropic compression behavior and volume change behavior of buffer layer are evaluated. Thermal consolidation tests were conducted using a modified triaxial cell capable of handling temperatures up to 90 °C. In order to investigate the effects of thermal gradients on the behavior of the mixture, saturated specimens were cured at constant temperatures of 40 °C, 60 °C and 80 °C, for time periods of 1, 3 and 5 days. Then, the consolidation tests were performed holding the curing temperature at a constant value up to end of the test. The results show that when the soil experiences higher temperatures for longer curing periods, the behavior of reconstituted soil is shifted from the reconstituted to a structured one which is an effect of induced creep in high-plasticity bentonite portion. Using the results of the tests performed in this study, a critical state-based constitutive model is proposed to simulate thermally induced volume change behavior of structured mixture. The capability of the proposed model is verified based on the experimental results and it is proved that the proposed model predictions are in good agreement with the experimental data.

Volume Change Behavior of Stabilized Expansive Clay with Lignosulfonate

This paper presents the swelling and consolidation characteristics of Lignosulfonate (LS) stabilized expansive clay. Expansive clay samples of Amol city in Iran have been used in this research. Based on Atterberg limits and unconfined compressive strength tests, optimum percentage of LS for treatment of this clay was determined 0.75% by soil dry weight. To investigate swelling and consolidation properties of untreated and LS-treated remoulded samples, one dimensional swell and consolidation tests were conducted on these samples. Test results showed that LS has considerable effect on the consolidation and swelling behavior of the expansive clay. Moreover, the effects of compaction water content change and cyclic wetting and drying on the volume change properties of unstabilized and LS-stabilized samples were investigated. Untreated and LS-treated specimens showed different consolidation behavior to the changes of compaction moisture content due to the altering of soil expansivity category from high to moderate. The SEM images of samples showed that the soil specific area was reduced because of stabilization. This reduction in soil specific area was led to the decrease of affinity of samples to moisture increase, so the volume change of expansive clay was decreased.

Electrochemical Degradation Caused By Mechanical Damage in All Solid State Battery Based on Al2O3 doped Li7La3Zr2O12

All solid state lithium ion batteries consisting of solid electrodes and a Li ion conductive solid electrolyte have been expected to overcome the safety problem of present lithium ion batteries including flammable non-aqueous solvent . Solid solid interface contact between electrode and electrolyte layers also prevents the formation of the side reaction which is adverse for the lifespan of liquid batteries. However, the degradation of all solid state batteries(ASSBs) still exists even though it shows higher reliability compared to the traditional liquid batteries. Li7La3Zr2O12 solid electrolyte is one of the promising electrolytes for all solid state battery due to its high Li ion conductivity and stability against Li metal anode. For LiCoO2 cathode, decreasing the lithium concentration during charging process will lead to substantial repulsive forces between the O2 − ions in adjacent layers. It has been observed by Luo et al. that the maximum volume change rate LiCoO2 could be up to ~ 4.27% at the fully charging end. We suspect that the cathode interface formation in combination with the mechanical expansion ion provokes a contact loss between active material and solid electrolyte. We investigate the interface behavior at the cathode and demonstrate the important role of the interface between the active materials and the solid electrolyte for the battery performance. As solid electrolytes show quite limited plasticity and are unable to flow or infiltrate pores—in contrast to their liquid counterparts—mechanical contact loss due to irreversible shape changes of the LiCoO2 material is expected to have a significant contribution to the observed interfacial resistance. We reveal that the large volumetric change during the charge-discharge cycle and the resultant cracks are the primary mechanism of cyclic degradation of the ASSBs with rigid contact between cathode and solid electrolyte layers. Li7La3Zr2O12 bulk ceramic samples were fabricated by conventional solid-state reaction. The starting materials, Li2CO3, La(OH)3, γ-Al2O3 and ZrO2, were mixed by planetary ball-milling, and then calcinated at 800 °C for 10 h and 900°C for 10h. The calcinated powders were pressed into pellets and sintered at 1150 °C for 36 h in air. The cathode electrodes consist of 90 wt % active material and 10 wt % polyvinylidendifluoride solved in N-methyl pyrrolidone as a binder. No electrolyte material is added to purely focus on volume change behavior of the LiCoO2. Li foil was then attached on to the other side of the Li7La3Zr2O12 pellet as anode. All solid state battery with Li/Al2O3 added Li7La3Zr2O12 /LiCoO2 configuration was fabricated and its electrochemical properties were tested. The cycle life of the battery has been examined at temperature of 150 °C. All solid state cells (Li | Li7La3Zr2O12 | LiCoO2) were galvanostatically cycled within a potential window of 3.0–4.3 V vs Li/Li+ at 150 °C. The charge/discharge current density is set as 5 μA·cm− 2. All capacity was reported based on the mass of LiCoO2. The morphology of the electrode/electrolyte interface of the battery was observed using field emission-scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The theoretical electrochemical capacity of LiCoO2 is 137 mAh g−1, which corresponds to 0.5 Li per CoO2. The charge and discharge capacities of this battery were 12.6 mAh g−1, which corresponded to about 10% of the theoretical capacity. However, the corresponding discharge capacity is 2.7 mAh g−1 with columbic efficiency of 21%, indicating that most of lithium deintercalated from the cathode could not return to the lattice. The discharge capacity gradually decays and the capacity retention is 3% after 5 cycles. It can be seen that the first cycle is crucial for the overall capacity retention, as the most severe loss in capacity occurs in the first cycle. Such a strong capacity loss is not found when using LiCoO2 in a liquid electrolyte cell, suggesting that it is characteristic for the solid state environment. The attached figure presents the cross sectional SEM images of the interface between the cathode and the solid electrolyte. The results indicate that the destructive damage of cracks originated from the volume change of LiCoO2 layer is responsible for the degradation of cell during cycling. Figure 1

3D Wettable Framework for Dendrite‐Free Alkali Metal Anodes

AbstractThe infinite volume change and dendritic behavior in alkali metal anodes lead to low Coulombic efficiency and short‐circuit issues that significantly hamper renewed efforts at commercialization. Here, a dendrite‐free alkali metal anode, made by thermally preloading molten Li or Na into a 3D framework with high alkali wettability, is reported. In the mechanically robust 3D framework, carbon fiber (CF) serves as an electrical highway that provides fast charge transfer for the redox reaction. Through a facile solution‐based process, a SnO2 coating is introduced to modify the poor wetting behavior of the carbon framework and drastically improve both the electrochemical performance and reliability. The kinetic barrier to adhesion of molten alkali metals on the CF framework is eliminated by the mixed reaction with SnO2. The growth of dendrites is effectively repressed under the decreased local current density of the 3D framework. In full‐cell configurations with LiFePO4 cathodes, the Li–CF electrode shows reduced polarization and 90% capacity retention after 500 cycles in traditional carbonate electrolyte. Comparable improvements are also observed in 3D electrodes for Na metal batteries. These findings on a stable 3D carbon framework with improved wetting behavior provide significant practical implications for achieving safe and commercially viable alkali metal anodes.

Experimental investigation of soil blended with lime and lignosulphonate

The deterioration of the structures which are built on the expansive soils is due to its volume change behavior, due to the presence of Mont-morillonite minerals in soil. Hence this soil requires adequate stabilization before commencement of any construction activities. The stabili-zation phenomenon in which addition suitable additives completely alters the behavior of the soil by changing the basic properties and there-by increasing the bearing strength of soil. The choice of the additives depends on the ease and permanence of the stabilizing characteristics achieved for the expansive soil. In this paper, an attempt is done to evaluate the behavior of soil when blended with additives like saw dust ash, lime and lignosulphonate at varying blending ratio. The objective of the research work is to focus on the change in the plasticity charac-teristics by utilizing the industrial waste as additive due to its cementitious value, making it eco-friendly and reduction in cost. Lignosulpho-nate is a by-product of paper pulp industry, generated during the sulphite process. From the literature, the optimum percentage for stabilizing works for lime and lignosulphonate was found to be two to eight percent and one to three percent respectively. Basic Index properties and compaction characteristics test were determined for both virgin and treated soil. The additives decreased the plasticity index, causing ag-glomeration of clay particles involving pozzolanic reaction.

Influence of Temperature on the Volume Change Behavior of Saturated Sand

The effect of temperature on the volume change of sand is rarely reported but may be relevant to the performance of energy geostructures. This study involves an investigation of the thermal volume change behavior of saturated, dense sand through a series of temperature-controlled, isotropic hollow cylinder triaxial compression tests. Variables measured during a heating stage include the volume of water expelled from the sand specimen, the temperatures at the top, bottom, and inside of the specimen, and the axial and volumetric strains. The volumes were used along with thermo-elastic relationships for the pore water and soil skeleton to infer the axial and volumetric strains during drained heating. It was observed that the thermally induced axial and volumetric strains were negative, reflecting expansion. The pore water was observed to flow out of the sand specimen during heating, reflecting differential thermal expansion of the pore water and sand particles. The thermal volume changes were observed to be independent of the mean effective stress, as the dense sand specimens were all in normally consolidated conditions. Three linear equations incorporating the effects of temperature on the volume change behavior of dense sand were proposed and match well with the experimental data. The experimental approach proposed in this study can be used in the future to evaluate the role of sand density and stress state on the parameters of these equations.

Effective stresses for unsaturated states stemming from clay microstructure

The paper first discusses a novel microstructure conceptual model for compacted clays based on the assumptions that compacted unsaturated clay is made of a water-saturated part (pores filled with water) and an air-saturated part (pores filled with air). The microstructure conceptual model is exploited to interpret a variety of MIP from the literature. The paper then shows the capability of the two effective stresses for unsaturated states stemming from this microstructure conceptual model to model volume change and shear strength behaviour of compacted clays. The model built around these two effective stresses is based on the assumption that the water saturated part behaves like reconstituted clay under saturated conditions and the air-saturated part behaves like clay compressed from dry powder under dry conditions. As a result, mechanical behaviour of compacted clay is modelled by only considering constitutive parameters from reconstituted clay and clay compressed from dry powder.

Volume change behaviour of swelling and non-swelling clays upon inundation with water and a low dielectric constant fluid

Studies of the volume change behaviour of saturated and unsaturated fine-grained soils upon exposure to various types of fluid are of significant interest while dealing with contaminated soils. In this study, the one-dimensional volume change behaviour of two clays (Spergau kaolin and Calcigel bentonite) with dominant minerals as kaolinite and montmorillonite was studied by inundating several initially unsaturated and saturated clay specimens with water and a non-polar organic liquid (heptane). For both cases, applied vertical pressures of 25 and 100 kPa were considered under oedometric conditions. The magnitude of compression and swelling deformations of the clays were found to be strongly dependent upon the mineralogy of clays, dielectric properties of the pore-fluid, initial compaction conditions, and applied stress during the wetting process. The test results indicated distinct interactions between unsaturated clays and water. Specimens of Spergau kaolin exhibited compression with water, whereas specimens of Calcigel bentonite exhibited swelling. Compression and swelling deformations of the clays with heptane as the inundating liquid remained within about ±1.0% for both clays indicating a very minor interaction between unsaturated clays and molecules of this non-polar organic liquid. The test results emphasized the significance of attractive and repulsive forces and their impact on the volume change behaviour of clays of different mineralogy.

Potential of fly ash to suppress the susceptible behavior of lime-treated gypseous soil

The use of lime and fly ash to improve the properties of certain types of soil is well established. However, the potential of fly ash to control the adverse effects of lime-treated gypseous/sulphatic soil has not been well investigated. In the present work, an attempt is made to quantify the fly ash content used to suppress the susceptible behavior of lime-treated gypseous soil. Series of one-dimensional swell and compressibility analyses are performed on various combinations of expansive soil with a predominance of montmorillonite mineral containing lime, gypsum (0–6%), and fly ash (0–30%). It is observed that the volume change behavior of the lime-treated gypseous soil is not controlled completely by addition of fly ash. However, the maximum improvement in the volume change behavior of the lime-treated gypseous soil is observed with a 20% fly ash content, and hence, can be taken as the Optimum Fly ash Content (OFC). Micro-analyses revealed that the relative dominance of the change in gradation and the formation of cementitious compounds of different compositions and ettringite crystals are the key factors in controlling the volume change behavior of lime-treated gypseous soil with fly ash. However, several factors, such as the types of minerals present in the soil, the types of fly ash and lime, and other physico-chemical environmental conditions (temperature, method of curing, and so on), are seen in the present study to affect the value of the obtained OFC.

VOLUME CHANGE BEHAVIOR OF PHOSPHOGYPSUM TREATED CLAYEY SOILS CONTAMINATED WITH INORGANIC ACIDS – A MICRO LEVEL STUDY

Soils exhibit undesirable volume changes when exposed to high concentrations of acids, which is manifested most frequently in the beds of foundations of industrial establishments associated with their production or use. However, control of this phenomenon has received less attention than it deserves. This paper aims to investigate the mineralogical and micro-structural changes occurred during the volume change behavior of phosphogypsum treated clayey soils contaminated with sulfuric acid and phosphoric acid solutions. Oedometer test results showed high swelling and low compressibility for acid contaminated soils than that of water. The change in microstructure towards flocculated fabric along with mineralogical transformations are responsible for the volume changes in soils. The mineralogical changes that affected the volume change behavior are discussed with FT-IR, XRD and SEM analysis. Phosphogypsum treatment was found to be effective in controlling volume changes in soils with phosphoric acid, whereas in the case of sulfuric acid found to be futile.

Volume Change Behavior of Two Compacted Clayey Soils under Hydraulic and Mechanical Loadings

AbstractThe paper presents an experimental study on the volumetric behavior of two compacted soils (Boughrara and Châtaignier clays) through suction-controlled drying-wetting and oedometric tests. ...

Volume change behavior of bentonite-sand mixture under constant suction condition

The unsaturated state of soil can raise many geotechnical problems upon wetting-drying cycles such as volume change resulting in collapse or swell, change in the shear strength, and change in the hydraulic conductivity. The classical principles of soil mechanics for saturated soil are often not suitable for explaining these phenomena. An experimental work was carried out to study the volume change behavior of Bentonite-Sand mixture under constant suction condition. A mixture of 30% Calcigel bentonite and 70 % Haider sand (30B) were tested in this study. The applied suction was kept constant through the tests. Thirteen 30B specimens were tested under constant suction condition. Two different initial states (slurry and loose) were chosen to examine the effect of initial state on the volume change at unsaturated state. The results of first group (initially slurry state) show that once the suction was applied the compressibility of the specimens in this group followed the isotropic NCL up to 255 kPa suction. Subsequently, the slope of compression curve decreased. The results of increasing suction for initially slurry state show that the slope of compression lines became near to zero for suction higher than 600 kPa. Moreover, when applied suction is lower than the air-entry value, saev, the soil behaviors as the saturated soil. Therefore, the effective stress equation can be applied. The results of second group (initially loose state) show that the unsaturated preconsolidation pressure increases as the constant suction increases. The slopes of the unsaturated over consolidated paths in all tests were closed to the slope of saturated over consolidated path (Cr), while the slopes of the unsaturated normal consolidated (yield) state are higher than the slope of saturated NCL. Finally the results show that the slope of the unsaturated NCL is higher (steeper) than the slope of saturated NCL.

Characterization tools for shrinkage-compensating repair materials

Achievement of dimensional compatibility is one of the most important considerations in order to consistently achieve lasting repair works that do not undergo harmful cracking. Drying shrinkage of Portland cement concrete is generally inevitable and, although its magnitude can be reduced by optimizing or modifying the composition parameters, it remains significantly larger than its ultimate tensile strain. Conversely, the use of shrinkage-compensating concrete (ShCC) may allow to achieve a zero-dimensional balance with respect to drying shrinkage, through the use of a mineral expansive agent. The experimental work carried out in recent years at Laval University to evaluate the potential of shrinkage-compensating concretes (ShCC) for use as repair materials has in fact yielded quite promising results. Nevertheless, more research is required to turn ShCC systems into a truly dependable and versatile repair option. Among the issues still unresolved, suitable tests methods must be developed, not only to better characterize ShCC, but also to guide the specifications and perform field quality control. Efforts have thus been devoted to adapt or develop test procedures intended to better capture the particular volume change behavior of ShCC’s. The paper presents two test procedures intended to assess the shrinkage-compensating potential and the effective strain balance of ShCC in restrained conditions.

Role of normal boundary condition in interface shear test for the determination of skin friction along pile shaft

This paper presents numerical results from a two-dimensional discrete element method (DEM) simulation study on the influence of lateral boundary condition on shaft resistance of a pile driven into a crushable sand. The study was conducted by comparing simulation results from the pile penetration test and the interface shear test employing parallel-bonded agglomerates for modeling of the particle breakage. The interface shear test was performed under three different types of normal boundary conditions; namely, constant normal load (CNL), constant normal stiffness (CNS), and constant volume (CV) boundary conditions. For the pile penetration test, a series of sampling windows were identified on the initial ground configuration to monitor the stress–strain, volume change, and particle breakage behavior of particle groups located within the sampling windows. A detailed investigation was then undertaken by comparing the behavior of particle groups with that from the interface shear test to find out which type of normal boundary condition best describes the lateral boundary condition in the pile penetration test. It has been found that the behavior of a particle group reaches the peak state below the pile tip and the critical state after it reaches the pile shaft. The influence of normal boundary condition on the stress ratio at the critical state is not obvious. The conventional interface shear test (i.e., CNL) can provide valuable information on the determination of skin friction along the pile shaft.