Levels Of Volatile Sulfur Compounds Research Articles

Efficiency of Tongue Cleaning with 0.12% Chlorhexidine Gluconate on the Oral Levels of Volatile Sulphur Compounds

Efficiency of Tongue Cleaning with 0.12% Chlorhexidine Gluconate on the Oral Levels of Volatile Sulphur Compounds

Relationship between Oral Malodor and Glycosylated Salivary Proteins

Volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs), which are major sources of oral malodor, are produced by putrefactive activities of bacteria. Saliva provides easily degradable protein substrates, and most proteins are glycosylated. We hypothesized that oral malodor would be associated with enhanced proteolysis or deglycosylation in saliva. The purpose of this study was to evaluate properties of glycoproteins in saliva and assess their association with VSC levels. Subjects were 88 patients who visited "the Fresh Breath Clinic", Dental Hospital, Tokyo Medical and Dental University. They were classified into malodor (n = 67) and non-malodor (n = 21) groups. After collecting saliva, the amounts of the total proteins and carbohydrate were determined. Molecular size distributions of salivary proteins/glycoproteins were analyzed by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). The amount of the total salivary proteins was significantly higher in the malodor group. Major proteins/glycoproteins observed in SDS-PAGE analyses showed similar distributions between the two groups. In the malodor group, the salivary protein concentrations were positively correlated with the CH3SH levels (p < 0.05), and the carbohydrate contents were negatively correlated with the H2S levels (p < 0.05). These results indicated the possibility that salivary proteins/glycoproteins might be related to the malodor generation.

Effect of non-surgical periodontal treatment by full-mouth disinfection or scaling and root planing per quadrant in halitosis-a randomized controlled clinical trial.

The objective of this study was to compare the effect of one-stage full-mouth disinfection (FMD) and conventional quadrant scaling in four weekly sessions (QS) on periodontal clinical parameters and halitosis among individuals with advanced chronic periodontitis. In this randomized controlled clinical trial, 30 individuals were divided into two groups: FMD (n=15) and QS (n=15). The following data were collected at the baseline and 90days after treatment: plaque index, tongue-coating index (TCI), bleeding on probing, probing depth, and clinical attachment level. Halimetry was performed by the organoleptic method, and the levels of volatile sulfur compounds (H2S and CH3SH) were measured by gas chromatography. The Chi-square, Fisher's exact, the Mann-Whitney, the McNemar, and the Wilcoxon tests were used for statistical analysis. Both groups showed statistically significant improvements in periodontal clinical parameters, reduction in TCI, organoleptic scores, and in CH3SH levels between times. However, major reduction was observed in FMD group. Non-surgical periodontal therapy, regardless of the protocol, was effective in improving periodontal clinical status of individuals, decreasing organoleptic scores and CH3SH levels between times, as well as reducing halitosis. This study contributed to the knowledge that non-surgical periodontal therapy, whether by FMD or QS, was effective in reducing halitosis in individuals with advanced chronic periodontitis.

Plaque autofluorescence as potential diagnostic targets for oral malodor.

The aim of this study was to determine whether the degree of tongue and interdental plaque can be used to assess oral malodor by quantifying their fluorescence as detected using quantitative light-induced fluorescence (QLF) technology. Ninety-nine subjects who complained of oral malodor were included. The level of oral malodor was quantified using the organoleptic score (OLS) and the concentration of volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs). The fluorescence properties of tongue and interdental plaque were quantified as scores calculated by multiplying the intensity and area of fluorescence in QLF-digital images, and the combined plaque fluorescence (CPF) score was obtained by summing the scores for the two regions. The associations of the scores with malodor levels and the diagnostic accuracy of the CPF score were analyzed. The two plaque fluorescence scores and their combined score differed significantly with the level of oral malodor (p<0.001). The CPF score was moderately correlated with OLS (r=0.64) and VSC levels (r=0.54), and its area under the receiver operating characteristic curve was 0.77 for identifying subjects with definite oral malodor (OLS≥2). In conclusion, plaque fluorescence from tongue and interdental sites as detected using QLF technology can be used to assess the level of oral malodor.

An objective assessment of halitosis in children with adenoid vegetation during pre- and post-operative period

ObjectivesAlthough most specialists in otorhinolaryngology and pediatrics find halitosis to be a common problem in children with adenoid hypertrophy, there are no objective data on this topic in the literature. Whether adenoid hypertrophy is a risk factor for halitosis or whether halitosis is a sign of adenoid hypertrophy remains unclear. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate whether children diagnosed with adenoid hypertrophy have a higher probability of halitosis than do children in the normal population and whether adenoidectomy can decrease oral malodor. MethodsForty children with adenoid hypertrophy and 40 healthy subjects aged 5–15 years were included in the study. The children with adenoid hypertrophy underwent adenoidectomy operations and were followed for 3 months. We measured volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), methyl mercaptan (CH3SH), and dimethyl sulfide (CH3)2S using an objective method, a portable gas chromatograph (OralChroma; AbiMedical, Osaka, Japan). ResultsThe mean CH3SH and (CH3)2S levels were significantly different (p < 0.05) between the adenoid hypertrophy group and the controls. The H2S, CH3SH, and (CH3)2S levels in the third postoperative month were significantly lower (p < 0.05) than those in the preoperative period, and there was no significant difference postoperatively between the patients with adenoid hypertrophy and controls. There was a positive correlation between age and VSC levels, and CH3SH levels were significantly higher in patients with ventilation tube insertion, rather than just adenoidectomy. ConclusionsThere was a statistically significant association between halitosis and adenoid hypertrophy, and a significant improvement in halitosis was obtained following adenoidectomy. The present study provides an association between halitosis and adenoid hypertrophy. If there is no other oral pathology causing halitosis, halitosis can be a sign of adenoid hypertrophy in children.

Evaluation of halitosis using OralChroma™ in patients with allergic rhinitis

ObjectiveThe objective of this study was to evaluate the occurrence of halitosis in patients with allergic rhinitis (AR). Materials and methodsIn this study, we enrolled 53 patients with AR and 34 participants as controls. Halitosis was evaluated by measuring volatile sulphur compound (VSC) levels. VSCs, which consist of hydrogen sulphide (HS), methyl mercaptan (MM), and dimethyl sulphide (DMS), were measured using a portable gas chromatograph (OralChroma™; AbiMedical, Osaka, Japan). ResultsPatients with AR exhibited significantly higher levels of MM and DMS that did control subjects. Specifically, MM levels showed a greater increase than DMS levels in patients with AR than in controls. We observed no significant changes in the levels of HS between the groups. ConclusionThis study demonstrated that AR is likely to result in halitosis. Several studies have overlooked the relationship between halitosis and AR. In light of our results, we suggest that halitosis should be further investigated in patients with AR.

Halitosis associated volatile sulphur compound levels in patients with laryngopharyngeal reflux.

Previous reports have suggested that laryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR) may cause halitosis. However, it remains unclear if LPR is a risk factor for halitosis. The aim of this study was to investigate if patients diagnosed with LPR have an increased probability of halitosis compared to a normal population. Fifty-eight patients complaining of LPR symptoms and 35 healthy subjects were included in the study. A LPR diagnosis was made using an ambulatory 24-h double pH-probe monitor, which is the gold standard diagnostic tool for LPR. Additionally, halitosis was evaluated by measuring the levels of volatile sulphur compounds using OralChroma™ and an organoleptic test score. The result of the final diagnosis of the 58 patients after the 24h ambulatory pH monitoring was that 42 patients had LPR. Significant correlations were observed between the organoleptic test score and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and methyl mercaptan (CH3SH) levels. These were also significantly correlated with LPR. We found a strong positive association between LPR and volatile sulphur compound levels. The H2S and CH3SH levels differed significantly between the LPR and control groups (p<0.0001 and p<0.0001, respectively). Halitosis was significantly associated with the occurrence and severity of LPR. The present study provides clear evidence for an association between halitosis and LPR. Halitosis has a high frequency in patients with LPR and reflux characteristics are directly related to their severity and therefore could be considered as a manifestation of LPR.

The efficacy of two oral hygiene regimens in reducing oral malodour: a randomised clinical trial

This study compared the efficacy of two oral hygiene regimens in reducing oral malodour and the proportions of bacterial species involved in the production of volatile sulphur compounds. Seventy subjects who participated in a halitosis-induction phase and achieved an organoleptic score of ≥ 3.0 [time point 0 (T0)] randomised into two groups: brushing with regular fluoride toothpaste alone (control group) or brushing with regular fluoride toothpaste followed by rinsing with a 0.075% cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC) mouthwash (CPC group). Subjects followed their assigned oral hygiene regimen for 21 days. Then, they underwent an organoleptic examination and measurement of volatile sulphur compounds (VSCs) using a portable gas chromatograph, 12 hours after their last oral hygiene procedure (T1) and 4 hours after an on-site oral hygiene (T2). Microbiological samples (supragingival biofilm, tongue coating and saliva) were analysed using checkerboard DNA-DNA hybridisation. Both therapies statistically significantly improved the organoleptic scores (P < 0.05), but the VSC levels and/or concentrations were reduced only in the CPC group (P < 0.05). In subjects rinsing with CPC, oral malodour scores were reduced by 49% at the 4-hour assessment (T2) compared with those not rinsing (P < 0.05). Red-complex pathogens were reduced more effectively in the CPC group than in the control group. Brushing followed by rinsing with a 0.075% CPC mouthwash provided statistically significantly greater reductions in oral malodour, measured organoleptically and instrumentally, and in the proportions of red-complex species when compared with brushing alone.

Removal of volatile organic sulfur compounds by aeration during algae-induced black blooms in shallow lakes

High levels of volatile organic sulfur compounds (VOSCs) have frequently been detected during algae-induced black blooms, which pose an ecological threat to water bodies and their surrounding residents. In this study, aeration was applied to remove the VOSCs after the outbreak of a black bloom. The removal efficiencies under different aeration rates (A1 (0.06 m3-air min−1 m−3), A2 (0.18 m3-air min−1 m−3), and A3 (0.54 m3-air min−1 m−3)) were compared. For treatments A2 and A3, the level of dissolved oxygen (DO) and the oxidation-reduction potential (Eh) increased sharply after 1 h of aeration, and about 70% of the VOSCs were removed from the water columns; however, for treatment A1, the increases in DO and Eh and the rate of removal of VOSCs were slower. The ultimate removal rate of VOSCs was >99% for all the aerated treatments after 24 h. The alteration of the oxidation-reduction conditions, induced by the aeration, could be the primary reason for the removal of the VOSCs. Thus, aeration treatment might be a feasible technique for the removal of VOSCs after the outbreak of black blooms in waterworks and some shallow lakes.

Clinical assessment of oral malodor using autofluorescence of tongue coating

ObjectivesThe aim of this study was to evaluate whether a new method using quantitative light-induced fluorescence-digital (QLF-D) was appropriate for the diagnosis of oral malodor by quantifying the fluorescence of tongue coating. MethodsThis study examined 103 healthy subjects who have an oral malodor as a main complaint. The levels of oral malodor were measured by organoleptic scores (OLS) and volatile sulfur compound (VSC) levels. The fluorescent tongue coating images captured by QLF-D were quantified as the integrated fluorescence score (IF score) by multiplying the intensity and area of fluorescence. The correlations between the fluorescence parameters and OLS as well as VSC levels and the diagnostic accuracy of the IF score were evaluated. ResultsThe IF score of tongue coating showed a significant positive correlation with the OLS (r=0.54, p<0.01) and the VSC levels (r=0.49, p<0.01). This score was significantly differed with the level of oral malodor (p<0.001), and its AUC was 0.72 in identifying the patient with definite oral malodor (≥OLS 2). ConclusionsA new method quantifying tongue coating fluorescence detected by QLF-D can be used to diagnose oral malodor and assess its severity in the clinical practice.

Effects of metal salt addition on odor and process stability during the anaerobic digestion of municipal waste sludge

Anaerobic digestion (AD) is an effective way to recover energy and nutrients from organic waste; however, several issues including the solubilization of bound nutrients and the production of corrosive, highly odorous and toxic volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs) in AD biogas can limit its wider adoption. This study explored the effects of adding two different doses of ferric chloride, aluminum sulfate and magnesium hydroxide directly to the feed of complete mix semi-continuously fed mesophilic ADs on eight of the most odorous VSCs in AD biogas at three different organic loading rates (OLR). Ferric chloride was shown to be extremely effective in reducing VSCs by up to 87%, aluminum sulfate had the opposite effect and increased VSC levels by up to 920%, while magnesium hydroxide was not shown to have any significant impact. Ferric chloride, aluminum sulfate and magnesium hydroxide were effective in reducing the concentration of orthophosphate in AD effluent although both levels of alum addition caused digester failure at elevated OLRs. Extensive foaming was observed within the magnesium hydroxide dosed digesters, particularly at higher doses and high OLRs. Certain metal salt additions may be a valuable tool in overcoming barriers to AD and to meet regulatory targets.

Incidence des conditions de conservation des vins blancs sur leur teneur en composés soufrés volatils

Dans ce travail, nous avons etudie l’incidence de quelques parametres de conservation des vins issus des cepages blancs grecs, Batiki et Rhoditis, sur leur teneur en composes soufres volatils. Il est demontre que le stade du sulfitage des vins nouveaux joue un role important sur la formation de ces substances, ainsi que l’aeration qui entraine leur diminution. De plus, la conservation des vins en barrique ou en cuve, avec les lies ou non, influence d’une maniere differente la teneur des vins en substances soufrees volatiles. Influence of white wine conservation conditions on the levels of volatile sulphur compounds In the present study, the effects of various parameters of white wine conservation on the level of volatile sulphur compounds were examined. Wines from the Greek white cvs Batiki and Rhoditis were fermented. H2S was analysed colorimetrically, the more volatile sulphur compounds by headspace-gas chromatography (GC) coupled with flame photometry detection (FPD) and the less volatile sulphur compounds by liquid extraction-GC/MS. The best time to sulphurize a young wine is 5-6 d after the end of alcoholic fermentation in order to avoid the accumulation of sulphur substances, especially in wines intended to age on lees, Aeration of wine causes a notable decrease of the more volatile sulphur compounds, whereas the diminution is less important for the less volatile sulphur compounds. Furthermore, the amount of volatile sulphur compounds is affected by the conservation of wines in barriques or in stainless tanks, the duration of contact of wine with its lees, as well as the duration of conservation.

Comparative effect of a new mouthrinse containing chlorhexidine, triclosan and zinc on volatile sulphur compounds: a randomized, crossover, double-blind study.

The aims of this study were to compare the volatile sulphur compounds (VSC)-reducing effect of two commercial mouthrinses using a morning bad breath model and to assess the role of mechanical plaque control (MPC) when performed previously to mouthrinse use. Eleven volunteers with good oral health were enrolled in a double-blind, randomized, six-step crossover design study with a 7-day washout period. Two commercial mouthrinses were tested using a saline solution (NaCl 0.9%) as a negative control: one mouthrinse contained 0.05% chlorhexidine, 0.05% cetylpyridinium chloride and 0.14% zinc lactate (CHX-CPC-Zn), while the other contained 0.05% chlorhexidine, 0.15% triclosan and 0.18% zinc pidolate (CHX-triclosan-Zn). A portable sulphide monitor (Halimeter(®) ) was used for VSC quantification. Measurements were made at baseline, and 1, 3 and 5h after rinsing. Significant differences were detected by analysis of variance. No significant differences between groups were detected at baseline. We were unable to demonstrate a significant influence of mechanical plaque control on the reduction of VSC levels when performed before mouthrinse use (P=0.631). Both mouthrinses effectively lowered VSC levels in all test intervals (P<0.05). No statistically significant differences were found between mouthrinses in any of the test intervals (P=0.629, 0.069 and 0.598 at 1, 3 and 5h). This study demonstrated that CHX-CPC-Zn and CHX-triclosan-Zn have significant and similar effects in reducing VSC levels, which persist for at least 5h. Such effects were independent of previous MPC, which failed to improve on the results of mouthrinse use alone.

The evaluation of olfactory function in individuals with chronic halitosis.

Halitosis and olfactory dysfunction may disrupt an individual's quality of life remarkably. One may ask whether halitosis has effects on olfactory functions or not? Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the olfactory abilities of subjects with chronic halitosis evaluated using the measurements of volatile sulfur compounds. This study was carried out in 77 subjects, with a mean age of 40.1±13.3 years, ranging from 18 to 65 years. Forty-three participants were diagnosed as halitosis according to the gas chromatography results and constituted the halitosis group. Also, a control group was created from individuals without a complaint of halitosis and also who had normal values for volatile sulfur compounds. Each subject's orthonasal olfactory and retronasal olfactory functions were assessed using "Sniffin' Sticks" and retronasal olfactory testing. The results showed that odor threshold scores were lower in participants with halitosis compared with controls. Also, hyposmia was seen more common in the halitosis group than in controls. Moreover, a significant negative correlation was found between odor threshold scores and volatile sulfur compounds levels, particularly with hydrogen sulfide and dimethyl sulfide levels. The results suggest that the chronic presence of volatile sulfur compounds may have a negative effect on olfactory function.

Antimicrobial effect of lemongrass oil against oral malodour micro-organisms and the pilot study of safety and efficacy of lemongrass mouthrinse on oral malodour.

Lemongrass oil (LG) has been reported as being effective against bacteria embedded within the biofilm. The aims of this study were to investigate antimicrobial activity against common odourigenic micro-organisms, the safety and efficacy of LG mouthrinse on oral malodour in healthy volunteers. Antimicrobial activity of LG mouthrinse was examined against common odourigenic micro-organisms using broth microdilution assay and the disc diffusion method. A randomised double-blind clinical study was performed in 20 healthy volunteers. Volatile sulphur compounds (VSCs) level was measured using a Halimeter on day 0 and day 8 in each volunteer. The results showed that LG mouthrinse was effective against Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans ATCC43718 and Porphyromonas gingivalis W50 but less effective against Streptococcus mutans ATCC 25175. In addition, the mouthrinse significantly reduced VSCs on day 8. LG mouthrinse was able to reduce oral malodour and appeared to be safe. The overall satisfaction of the mouthrinse was acceptable. However, the spiciness and taste of the mouthrinse need to be improved. This study demonstrated that the LG mouthrinse significantly reduced oral malodour. This mouthrinse would be another alternative mouthrinse choice for prevention of malodour, plaque and gingivitis.

Volatile sulphur compound levels and related factors in patients with chronic renal failure.

To analyse specific volatile sulphur compound(VSC) levels in a group of chronic renal failure (CRF) patients and determine the relationship between these VSC levels and organoleptic measurements, blood urea nitrogen (BUN) levels, dental and periodontal conditions, salivary flow rate, and tongue coating scores. One examiner performed organoleptic and VSC measurements on fifty patients with CRF before and after haemodialysis (HD) and controls. DMFT and CPITN indexes, tongue coating scores, salivary flow rates were measured. Comparisons were performed using the Mann-Whitney U, Wilcoxon signed-ranks, and chi-square tests. Spearman correlation coefficient was used to analyse correlations. Before HD, the mean dimethyl sulphide level was 1.04 ± 1.20 in the CRF patients and 0.51 ± 0.65 in controls, with a significant difference. The mean hydrogen sulphide, methyl mercaptan and dimethyl sulphide levels in CRF patients were 1.47 ± 3.04, 1.03 ± 1.85, and 1.04 ± 1.20, respectively, before HD; and 0.53 ± 1.65, 0.48 ± 1.27, and 0.56 ± 0.85, respectively, after HD; with the differences being significant. Methyl mercaptan levels increased with an increase in HD duration. Tongue coating and organoleptic measurements were significantly correlated with methyl mercaptan. Dimethyl sulphide is the main VSC in extraoral blood-borne halitosis; but methyl mercaptan may also contribute to this type of halitosis. A decreased salivary flow rate and an increased pH of the biofilm matrix may be a significant parameter for VSC levels in CRF patients.

Effects of Kaki (Persimmon) Extract-containing Diet on Levels of Volatile Sulfur Compounds in Oral Gas and Feces, as well as on Subjective Fecal Odor, in Healthy Adults

柿抽出物含有食品（KE 食品；1 回摂取量：柿抽出物として 150 mg）の健常成人における口腔ガス中の主要口臭原因物質とされる 3 種の揮発性硫黄化合物 (VSC)，すなわち硫化水素 (H2S)，メチルメルカプタン (CH3SH) およびジメチルサルファイド (CH3SCH3)，の濃度に及ぼす効果を検討する試験（試験 1）および糞便臭の原因となる VSC として知られる CH3SH および H2S の糞便中濃度ならびに自覚的糞便臭に対する効果を検討する試験（試験 2），を各々実施した．11 名の被験者を対象として試験 1 においては，KE 食品の単回摂取によって口腔ガス中の CH3SCH3 の濃度が有意に低下することが示された．14 名の被験者を用いた試験 2 においては，KE 食品の 1 日 1 回，7 日間摂取は，CH3SH および H2S の糞便中濃度を有意なレベルまでは低下させなかったものの，自覚的糞便臭を有意に改善した．以上の成績から，口臭ならびに糞便臭に対する KE 食品の有益な効果が示唆された．

Halitosis: a review of the etiologic factors and association with systemic conditions and its management.

Halitosis is a general term defined as an unpleasant or offensive odor emanating from the breath, arising from either oral or nonoral sources. Extraoral factors, such as ear-nose-throat conditions or gastrointestinal, respiratory, and systemic diseases, may also contribute to oral malodor. Although, halitosis has a multifactorial etiology, local factors play an important role in the majority of cases. Halitosis may lead to significant personal discomfort and social embarrassment. Assessment of halitosis can be performed using organoleptic measurements, sulfide monitoring, gas chromatography, microbial testing and chemical test strips. Management approaches are based on masking oral malodor, reducing the levels of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs), and mechanical and/or chemical treatment. This review aims to identify the etiology of oral halitosis, describe the methods available for assessment and differential diagnosis and introduce a variety of management strategies. The importance of a multidisciplinary approach for the improvement of overall health and for the management and prevention of halitosis is highlighted.

Prevalence and awareness of halitosis in a sample of Jordanian population.

Objectives:This study was conducted to estimate the prevalence and awareness of halitosis among the subjects of a population, and also to compare the results of Halimeter® readings to self-estimation of halitosis and to assess the relationship between halitosis and oral health.Materials and Methods:A sample of 205 employees from the Jordan University for Science and Technology (JUST) were selected as study subjects. A standardized questionnaire focusing on dental hygiene, self-reported halitosis, and smoking was filled by all participants. In the clinical examination, the objective values for assessment of oral health and the presence of halitosis were gathered through an organoleptic test (OLT) and the measurement of volatile sulfur compound (VSC) level by Halimeter for each participant.Results:The prevalence of halitosis was 78%, with low rate of awareness (20.5%). The amount of TC played the most important role in increasing the concentration of VSCs in mouth air (P < 0.001).Conclusion:A statistically significant correlation was found between OLT and Halimeter values (P < 0.001). Subjective patients’ opinion did not correlate with the objective evaluation of halitosis. TC scores and smoking were the factors significantly associated to halitosis. The Halimeter showed promising characteristics regarding diagnosis of halitosis for clinical setting and field surveys.

The relationship between tongue brushing and halitosis in children: a randomized controlled trial

The study aimed to investigate the clinical and microbiological effects of tongue brushing on malodour in children. One hundred and fifty-one caries-free children were included. After clinical evaluation, halitosis was determined by organoleptic assessment and sulphide monitoring. Then, 69 children with high levels of volatile sulphur compounds (VSC) were randomly assigned into two groups (group 1: scaling-polishing + tooth brushing + tongue brushing and group 2: scaling-polishing + tooth brushing), and tongue coating samples were collected for microbiological analysis. After 2 weeks, VSC measurements, organoleptic assessment, clinical evaluations and sample collection were repeated. In both groups, organoleptic scores, VSC levels, gingival index, plaque index (PI), bleeding on probing and Winkel tongue coating index (WTCI) scores decreased after 15 days. However, only the change in WTCI and PI scores showed a statistically significant intergroup difference. The most prevalent anaerobic bacteria were Veillonella spp., Prevotella spp., Fusobacterium spp., and no intergroup difference was observed in terms of colony counts of bacteria. Tongue brushing did not provide an additional benefit to the treatment for malodour. According to the microbiological culture results, a specific bacterium responsible for halitosis in children could not be identified and more sensitive methods might be used for this purpose.